EXODUS 3

This chapter contains the all-important first meeting of Moses with God in which the former is commissioned to lead his people out of Egypt toward the promised land. One way to diagram it is shown below.

1. beyond the wilderness at the mountain of God (1-5)

    2. the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (6)

        3. the misery of my people in Egypt (7)

            4. deliver them from the Egyptians (8a)

                5. to bring them to a land of milk and honey (8b)

                    6. of the Canaanites...and Jebusites (8c)

            4'. the Egyptians oppress them (9b)

                        7. I will send you to Pharaoh (10a)

                            8'. bring my people out of Egypt (10b)

                        7'. Who am I to go to Pharaoh? (11a)

                            8'. bring the Israelites out of Egypt (11b)

1'. worship God on this mountain (12)

                                9. What is your name? (13)

                                    10. I AM WHO I AM (14a)

                                9'. Thus you shall say (14b)

                                    10'. I AM has sent me (14c)

    2'. the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (15a)

                                9''.This is my name forever (16a)

                                9'''. This is my title for all time (16b)

            4''. I will bring you out of (17a)

        3'. the misery of Egypt (17b)

                            6'. to the land of the Canaanites...and Jebusites (17b)

                5'. to bring them to a land of milk and honey (17c)

                        7''. You shall go to the king of Egypt (18a)

1''. into the wilderness to sacrifice to God (18b)

                                8''.The king of Egypt will let you go (19-20)

            4''. you will plunder the Egyptians (21-22)

The above is a roughly symmetrical arrangement in which all the major elements of verses 1-12 are repeated (in approximately the same order) in verses 17-22, thus highlighting the most important verses as those located in the center (vv. 13-16). It is there that God reveals His name to mankind – “I am who I am” or YAHWEH. In this post I would like to limit myself to just a few points regarding the names given to two of the participants, starting with Pharaoh.

Pharaoh

Interestingly, the ruler of Egypt in this chapter is called 'Pharaoh' in verses 10-11 but 'the king of Egypt' in verses 18-19. Actually, one can plot the instances in the Pentateuch in which these two designations are utilized either separately or together.

    Pharaoh: Genesis 37-50:7; Exodus 1-6:1; 6:30; 7:1; 7:3-18:20; Deuteronomy 6:21-22; 7:18

    King of Egypt: Genesis 40:1-5; Exodus 1:8, 15, 17, 18; 2:23; 3:18-19; 15:4; 6:11

    Pharaoh King of Egypt: Genesis 41:46; Exodus 6:11, 13, 27, 29; 14:8; Deuteronomy 7:8; 11:3

This may provide a good independent reality check on the Documentary Hypothesis of more liberal Bible scholars who basically propose that an earlier editor pieced together four different and often contradictory documents which each employ their own unique vocabulary (especially in the designations they use for God – see section 'Yahweh' below). These four hypothetical sources are labeled J, E, P, and D for convenience sake. Here are the generally accepted sources behind the verses listed above:

    Pharaoh: Gen. 37:36; 39:1; ch. 40-41:45 (E); Ex. 6:30;7:1 (P); Deut. 6:21-22 (D); Deut.11:3 (D)

    King of Egypt: Gen. 40:1, 5 (E), Ex. 1 (E); Ex. 2:23 (J &P), Ex. 3:18-19 (J), 15:4 (P)

    Pharaoh King of Egypt: Gen. 41:46 (P); Ex. 6:11-13 (P); Ex. 6:27 (P); Ex. 6:29 (P); Ex. 14:8 (P); Deut. 7:8 (D); Deut. 11:3 (D)

As you can see by the above, if one were to take the names for Pharaoh as the basis for assigning original sources rather than the names for God, a completely different set of divisions would result, again pointing out the rather tenuous basis behind the whole Documentary Hypothesis.

Yahweh

Much has been written concerning the exact meaning of that holy name for the Deity. For example, Bray says, “The ultimate origin of the name YHWH has been disputed by modern scholars but the biblical account of its meaning is clear enough. The name was given by God to Moses at the burning bush, and was linked to the Hebrew verb hayah ('to be'). God defines himself as 'I am' and the word YHWH therefore means 'he who is'. The point is of particular importance in the teaching of Jesus, who also referred to himself as 'I am' in a way which is clearly intended to identify him with God. YHWH is the special covenant name of God given only to Israel and associated in a special way with the promises made to that nation, but it would be a mistake to suppose that the Israelites saw any real distinction between YHWH and elohim.”

Manley: “This name, frequently transliterated 'Jehovah', but rendered in AV [i.e. KJV] commonly by 'LORD', is the personal name of the God of Israel, as 'Elohim' is the generic name for deity. It is, therefore, distinctively the name of the living God of biblical revelation...When first conveyed to Moses from the burning bush (Ex. Iii. 11-15), the flame that derived its sustenance from itself and not from its environment, was an impressive symbol of independent existence. The divine disclosure of the meaning of the name 'I am that I am', or perhaps more accurately 'I will be that I will be', announces the faithfulness and unchangeableness of God, the same yesterday, and for ever.”

Fretheim says, “Exod 3:14 is one of the most puzzling verses in the OT...Some scholars suggest that this response is a refusal to give the divine name, out of a belief that knowing the name gives some control over the one named...This, however, is a counsel of despair and stands at odds with God's statement, as with all names, this is simply to recognize the limits of drawing inferences from the name regarding the nature of the one whose name it is....The force of the name is not simply that God is or that God is present, but that God will be faithfully God for them in the history that is to follow (see vv. 16-17).”

H.R. Jones states that “the Name is deliberately mysterious...The Name, therefore, reflects the truth that God can be known only as He chooses to reveal Himself, and this, indeed, leads us to the central value of the otherwise enigmatic title which He chose. The verb used means 'to be an active, present reality'...the God of Israel declares that His presence and power will be made known to His people in the events of the Exodus. It is not simply that He will engineer these events, but that they will constitute a visible declaration of His name; i.e. His character will be revealed in and by them.”

Childs outlines the verses critics assign to each source as follows:

E = vv. 1, 4b, 6, 9-15; J=2-4a, 5, 7, 8, 16-22

But he points out that it is generally felt by critics that references to the burning bush (see 4b) are characteristic of J, not E. Also, Childs says that “clear source criteria seem to be missing in 16ff. Interestingly, Grossman prefers E for these verses, in conflict with most other scholars.

Other sources represented on the Internet weigh in with the following variations:

E=vv. 1, 6, 9b-15; J=2-4a, 5, 7-9a, 16-22

E=vv. 1-4a, 6, 9-15 J=4b-5, 7-8, 16-22

E=vv. 1, 4b-6, 9-15; J=2-4a, 7-8, 16-22

Durham notes that Beer and Fahrer only extend J's influence through v. 20. And Propp feels that Exodus 3:15-17 is a “classic Elohistic text” in some disagreement with the sources above. Childs says, “God's speech concludes by urging Moses into action (3:10, 16...)” although the above opinions would locate both those verses within different sources. The same problem is pointed out by Childs in that “Almost every divine response goes beyond the immediate problem to describe and incorporate the future (cf. 3:12 [E?], 18 [J?]...) The effect is to give his speech an atmosphere of great confidence and expectation which finally overcomes and absorbs the resistance of his messenger.”

In conclusion, we must agree with Childs' assessment: “The present form of the text also reflects literary activity rather than a fusion of oral tradition.” One can see this opinion reflected in the basically symmetrical structure for the chapter in Figure 1 above. We could also cite the fact that the verb root 'to see' (r'h) appears exactly seven times (an indication of perfection or completion in biblical parlance) in vv. 2-7, verses which most critics, however, (see above) parcel between two separate literary sources. And the same can be said regarding the Hebrew word for “go” which appears in vv. 10 and 16.

Thus, any firm pronouncements you may run across claiming that a particular verse of Scripture can be ascribed to a particular author writing in a particular time frame should be always taken with a grain of salt.

DAYLIGHT SAVINGS IN THE BIBLE (JOSHUA 10; II KINGS 20)

Since we in the United States recently went through the annual ritual of adjusting all of our clocks, watches, and timers, etc. at the start of Fall, I am reminded of two somewhat similar occurrences one can find in the Old Testament history books.

The best treatment of these two narratives is found in Bernard Ramm's valuable book titled The Christian View of Science and Scripture.

The Long Day of Hezekiah

The first is a miracle found in both II Kings 20 and Isaiah 38. Isaiah tells King Hezekiah that he will be cured of an illness and live for another 15 years. We know when Hezekiah died so we can date Isaiah's words to about 702 BC. And to confirm this prophecy, Isaiah tells him, “This is the sign to you from the LORD, that the LORD will do this thing that he has promised: See, I will make the shadow cast by the declining sun on the stairs (acting as a sort of sundial) of Ahaz turn back ten steps.” So the sun turned back on the stairs the ten steps by which it had declined.

In the first place, even a literal understanding of this narrative does not require that you have to believe that the sun moves around the earth just because it says that the sun declined, or was setting, in the sky. It is obviously common phenomenological language employed even today. Now, you can choose to believe that God reversed the rotation of the earth to accomplish the sign. Although God could have certainly done it in this manner, He would have had to simultaneously disrupt most of the laws of physics in order not to destroy every living being on the earth in the process. So it is probably wise to at least consider alternative interpretations. And one is very plausible. There is the known fact that during a total eclipse of the sun (one of which was visible in the Near East in that same year according to astronomers), shadows will momentarily move backwards as the moon goes in front of the sun. I have observed the same phenomenon myself. Ahaz was in bed in an interior room so that he couldn't observe the eclipse, but he could see the shadow on the steps of Ahaz from his bedroom. According to this second explanation, God millennia earlier set the planets, sun and moon in motion so that this sign would appear just when Ahaz needed it. Either way, it is a true miracle.

“The means by which the sign was accomplished is left unstated. Since reversing the rotation of the earth carries with it so many other implications, it seems likely that some sort of refraction of light was involved. 2 Chr. 32:31 seems to imply that it was a local phenomenon.” Wolf agrees with that assessment.

Ramm: “E.W. Maunder considers it to have been a miracle of lighting up the steps, and that is all [perhaps by the Shekinah Glory]. There is no astronomical miracle which will account for it.”

La Sor concludes, “Whether the sun was actually moved backward, or some refraction of its rays caused its shadow to move backward, is a discussion based on attempts to find more than the biblical text actually says.”

The Long Day of Joshua

On the day when the LORD gave the Amorites over to the Israelites, Joshua spoke to the LORD, and he said in the sight of Israel,

“Sun, stand still at Gibeon,

    and Moon, in the valley of Aijalon.”

And the sun stood still,

    and the moon stopped,

            until the nation took vengeance on their enemies.

            Is this not written in the Book of Jashar? (Joshua 10:12-13)

This passage follows a literal account in verses 1-11 of the defeat of the Gibeonites aided by a hailstorm sent from God. What are we to make of this passage?

1. Literal interpretation A literal reading would imply that God prolonged the daytime by temporarily slowing down or stopping the motion of the earth and/or the heavenly bodies. Again, because of the worldwide consequences of such an action and the fact that no other culture at that time reported such an event, perhaps we should consider other interpretations.

2. Phenomenological explanation This says that God provided a miracle of refraction to prolong the daylight hours so that the sun appeared to cease moving.

3. Poetic interpretation #1 Let's look at Joshua's words again. There are four reasons to believe that we are talking about figurative or poetic language here rather than literal language: The command is written in typical poetic parallelism as you can see by the way most translations indent the phrases. It also comes from the Book of Jashar, which is a book of poetry, as we know from another long quotation from it found in II Samuel 1. Obviously some of the language here is figurative since it contains a figure of speech known as an apostrophe (addressing inanimate objects or people who aren't present as if they can hear you and respond).

And lastly, we have an exact parallel in the Book of Judges to guide us. There the literal account of a battle in Judges 4 explains that God miraculously sent a thunderstorm to help the Jews to defeat the enemy. This account is then re-told poetically in Judges 5 where Deborah says that the stars fought against the enemy. In the Joshua 10 case, God miraculously sends a hailstorm to aid the Jews according to the literal account in verses 1-11, but the following poetic account in verses 12-13 points to the heavenly bodies as the cause.

4. Poetic interpretation #2 If it is poetry, there is another way of understanding these verses. Joshua is calling on the heavenly bodies to freeze in shocked amazement over the great victory of Israel. Again, there is a parallel found elsewhere in the OT:

“The mountains saw you, and writhed; a torrent of water swept by; the deep gave forth its voice. The sun raised high its hands; the moon stood still in its exalted place at the light of your arrows speeding by, at the gleam of your flashing spear.” (Habakkuk. 3:10-11)

5. Different translations Then there are those scholars who believe that the standard translations are misleading. According to one, Joshua's request for the troop's relief from the sun was granted through a thunderstorm, which refreshed the army so that they were able to accomplish a day's march in half a day. Therefore, the translation should read, “The sun ceased to shine.”

Or there is the possibility that Joshua is actually calling down a curse on the sun and moon gods of Gibeon to “cease” from helping the Gibeonites.

I will close with a few of the comments Kaiser offers on this problem: First, he points out that there would have been no way of actually discerning whether the sun stood still in the sky because of the violent hailstorm which was occurring at the time (see Josh. 10:11). Therefore it is best to take the word dom in v. 13 to mean the sun 'was dumb' or 'silent' during the storm, indicating that the heat of the sun no longer bothered Israel's troops so that “the coolness brought by the storm relieved the men and permitted them to go on fighting and marching for a total of more than eighteen hours.” Kaiser discounts other suggested phenomena such as an unusual refraction of the sun's rays or the effect of a passing comet or meteorite since “usually these types of astronomical events are of short duration.”

Final Comments

By the way, all of the above explanations come from conservative Christian sources. They are not just attempts to explain away the miracle, just to explain it.

As Ramm rightly concludes, “All we need to assert is that evangelicalism is not embarrassed for want of a rationale of the long day of Joshua.”

In closing, you may happen to run across an account on the internet that says NASA scientists used their supercomputer to calculate the positions of all the stars and planets throughout the ages and came up with one day and a few hours missing in time, thus proving the existence of these two miracles. Ignore it. It is an urban Christian legend that has been around for decades and thoroughly debunked many times.

II SAMUEL 23:8-39

 As a reader gets toward the end of II Samuel, he can be excused for speed reading the final verses of Chapter 23, with its lists of famous warriors. But there are some gems hidden in this passage which take a little effort to dig out.

One of the first things to note is that this is more than just an appendix for material which doesn't seem to fit any place else in the story. In fact, it is part and parcel of the overall plan of the book, a portion of which is shown below in Figure 1.

Figure 1: The Structure of I Samuel 1-I Kings 11

IA. Samuel (I Sam. 1-7)

IIA. Saul's Reign (I Sam. 8:1-21:9)

IIIA. David Hides from Saul (I Sam. 21:10-II Sam. 1:27)

IVA. David the King (II Sam. 2-12)

IIIB. David Hides from Absalom (II Sam. 13-20)

IIB. Echoes of Saul's Reign (II Sam. 21-24)

IB. Solomon (I Kings 1-11)

Similarity                                                          Section IIA                 Section IIB

Massab (“garrison”)                                         6x                                II Sam. 23:14

“Honored” men                                                 I Sam. 9:6                   II Sam. 23:19,23

Only combination of “muster” and “battle”     I Sam. 17:1-2               II Sam. 23:9

Battles take place in valleys                             I Sam. 17:2-3,19          II Sam. 23:13

“Took his stand”                                               I Sam. 17:16                II Sam. 23:12

Lion killed single-handedly                             I Sam. 17:34-37           II Sam. 23:20

Hand-held weapons                                         I Sam. 18:10                 II Sam. 23:21

Then within II Samuel 21-24 itself, there is a definite symmetry, as demonstrated in Figure 2 below. Bratt notes, “This section in Samuel follows the account of trouble in David's household. Without this final series, David would have been presented as an utter failure. Yet this dischronoligized finale reminds the readers of the benefits David brought to Israel and the blessings offered through his permanent dynasty.”

                                       Figure 2. Echoes of Saul’s Reign (II Sam. 21-24)

A. Nation afflicted with famine because of blood-guilt;

Curse removed by Gibeonites hanging Saul’s sons (21:1-14)

B. David’s mighty men: battle with Philistines (21:15-22)

C. David’s song of praise (22:1-32)

C'. David’s royal psalm (23:1-7)

B'. David’s mighty men: battles with Philistines (23:8-39)

A'. Nation afflicted with pestilence because of census;

Curse removed after offerings to God are made (ch. 24)

Childs proposes the very same six-part symmetrical structure for these chapters and adds, “In sum, the final four chapters, far from being a clumsy appendix offer a highly reflective, theological interpretation of David's whole career adumbrating the messianic hope, which provides a clear hermeneutical guide for its use as sacred scripture.”

Sections A and A' are both labeled “David Intervenes” by Bratt.

Sections B and B' are specifically tied together verbally by the following parallels:

    “They fought against the Philistines, and David grew weary” (21:15b) //

    “He struck down the Philistines until his hand grew weary.” (23:10)

“spear” – 21:19; 23:8, 21 (3x)

Abishai, son of Zeruiah (21:17) // Joab, son of Zeruiah (23:37)

Sibbecai the Hushallite (21:18) // Mebunnai the Hushallite (23:27)

Elhanan son of Joasre-oregim (21:19) // Elhanan son of Dodo (23:24)

Jonathan son of Schimei (21:21) // Jonathan son of Shammah (23:32-33)

                                          Figure 3: Symmetry within II Samuel 23

    1. The Three (23:8-17)

            2. Those who did not attain to the Three

                    a. Abishai, commander of the Thirty (23:18-19)

                    a'. Benaiah, David's bodyguard (23:20-23)

    1'. The Thirty (23:24-39)

The parallelism between 2a and 2a' is particularly strong given the fact that both are summarized in the much the same words: ”He was the most renowned of the Thirty...but did not attain to the Three.”

Section 1 above can even be further parsed into the symmetrical arrangement shown below:

                                                        Figure 4: II Samuel 23:8-17

        a. The Three are named (vv. 8-12)

                b. David's request (vv. 13-15)

        a'. The action of the Three (vv. 16a)

                b' David's noble reaction (v. 16b-17)

Within section a above, “it is explicitly stated more than once that God Himself was responsible for their achievements.” (Payne) See 23:10, 12.

“Few of the names [in vv. 24-39] are given elsewhere in the Old Testament. The first is Asahel (24), killed by Abner during the war with Ishbosheth, [see 2:12-3:1], which implies that the Thirty must have existed very early in David's reign. I Chr. 11:42-47 adds a few further names.” (Porter)

In keeping with the emphasis on multiples of three in this chapter, one would expect there to be a total of 36 warriors in sections 1 and 1' instead of the number 37 given in v. 39. McKenzie says, “It is uncertain how the count of thirty-seven is achieved. The list in vv. 24-39 has thirty names in it. The addition of the “Three” plus Abishai and Benaan brings the number to thirty-five. Joab may have been counted as a member of this elite group, though his name is not specifically mentioned. There are textual variations in vv. 24-39 where an additional name may have been read.”

The one name which for me stands out above all the rest in this listing is that of Uriah the Hittite, given the important concluding place in v. 39, perhaps to remind the reader how this loyal soldier was so badly treated by David, who first stole his wife and then, with the help of Joab, arranged for him to be killed in battle. This same sad event may possibly also explain why the author purposely omitted Joab's name from verses 24-39 (though he is indirectly mentioned in verses 14, 24 and 37) so as to pointedly reduce the total number of names to only 35 instead of the expected 36 (3x3x4).

There is some agreement from the scholarly literature on the above supposition coming from Payne, who says, “Hertzberg considers it intentional and significant that the last name is that of Uriah, who was to be betrayed by the very man he supported so nobly.”

However, Merrill has a more mundane explanation for Joab's absence from the list. “Significant by its omission is any reference to Joab...Neither the author of Samuel nor that of the Chronicles felt it necessary, perhaps, to list Joab since he was commander of the whole army throughout most of

David's reign (20:23)...The longest list consists of 32 men but might have a few more or less and still be known as 'the 30,' a technical term for a small military contingent known in Hebrew as hasselosim ('the 30'). Or perhaps two men had died in battle (including Uriah the Hittite, 2 Sam 11:14-17) and were replaced.”

Rosenberg also notes the pointed omission of Joab's name and states, “This omission is an appropriate emblem of David's long and troubled association with Joab, who eventually dies by David's deathbed command given in I Kgs 2:5-6 and carried out in 2 Kings 2:28-34.” Rosenberg also perceptively mentions, “Uriah's behavior as a devout Israelite, in the manner of a simple footsoldier, is again highlighted by this incongruity [i.e. of his name appearing last in this enumeration of warriors] and becomes all the more moving in retrospect.”

By the way, note the purposeful emphasis on the number “3” and its multiples throughout this text. Most commentators will even point out that the number “800” found in II Samuel 23:8 is replaced by “300” in the parallel passage I Chronicles 11:11.

II SAMUEL 23:1-7

 In considering the particular poetic forms employed below, it should be noted that both verses 1 and 2-3a consist of what is called identical parallelism in which each separate line of poetry basically repeats the same idea. But this form is replaced with what is called progressive parallelism in verses 3b-4 in which the closing thought of one line begins the next line. Then both 23:5 and 23:6-7 bring the series of poems to a sort of conclusion through their concentric ABBA formats.

    “The last words of     David

    The oracle of             David, son of Jesse

    the oracle of              the man whom God exalted

    the anointed of                             the God            of  Jacob

    the favorite of                               the Strong One of Israel.” (23:1)

Freedman weighs in on the authenticity of this psalm by saying, “There is no reason to doubt either the date of the poem or its attribution to the royal court...The central claims and affirmations of the monarchy and specifically the Davidic dynasty are made succinctly but emphatically. David is the anointed of the God of Jacob, the beloved of Israel's protector (v. 1). Both Mosaic and patriarchal traditions are tied to David and his house.”

And J.J.M. Roberts confirms, “It is clearly monarchic probably pre-Deuteronomistic, and perhaps even Davidic as its designation claims.”

As Porter notes, “The last words of David follow the royal psalm just as the blessing of Moses follows the song of Moses, and the texts have evidently been put together thus on purpose.”

Merrill sees a clear progression here in that David is first described only as “the humble son of a Bethlehamite commoner” but ends up as “the poetically gifted king of Israel, a development which David attributed to his having been chosen and anointed by the Lord.”

There is a possible translation issue in the final line of 23:1. As Propp says, “'Israel's sweet singer'[as in KJV] is not impossible” though he personally prefers “favorite of the Strong One.”

    “The spirit of the LORD speaks through me

    His word                         is upon my tongue

    The God of Israel           has said to me.” (23:2-3a)

“David claims that Yahweh has spoken with him and therefore David's tongue will be uttering Yahweh's word (v. 2). What David will pass on is nothing but what the God and Rock of Israel has declared (v. 3a)...We should pick up on David's insistent repetition. He wants us to understand unmistakably that what he announces is not David's guess but Yahweh's dogma, not a piece of human insight but a clip of divine decree. And if it is God's word, then it is a sure word and can be depended upon.” (Davis)

Tsumura: “The sentence [i.e. v. 2a], which is in parallel with his word is on my tongue, shows that David represents himself as a prophet (see Matt. 22:43; Acts 1:16; 2:30; 4:25, Heb. 4:7) rather than simply as a poet who was thought to be divinely inspired.”

    “One who rules over people justly

                    ruling in the fear of God

                                    is like the light of                            morning

                                       like the sun rising on a cloudless morning

                                                          gleaming from the rain on the grassy land.”

                                                         (23:3b-4)

J. Baldwin “Such a ruler, says the Lord, is to be compared with three lovely experiences common to mankind everywhere: the early morning, when light dawns, the warmth of the sun on a cloudless morning, and rain that enables grass to sprout even after long drought (cf. Ps. 72:6). All three elements are necessary for healthy growth of plants, without which all life would cease; and for society the righteous ruler has an equally vital part to play...”

“The meaning of the metaphor. as I understand it...is that a just king, ruling in accordance with religious principles, is like the sun on a cloudless morning, which by its light causes the rain-drenched earth to turn green. There is an implicit connection between the grass (dese', 'verdure'), which sprouts in response to the sun's rays, and the loyal subjects of the king who flourish under his rule. This is shown by the contrasting example of the disloyal subjects of vv. 5-7, who will not 'sprout' and 'grow'; for them the sun, i.e., the king, will bring death rather than life when in the 'fire,' the blaze of the sun, 'they will be burned up' (cf. Mal 4:1]....” (McCarter)

    Is not my house like this with God?

            For he has made with me an everlasting covenant

            ordered and in all things secure.

    Will he not cause to prosper all my help and my desire? (23:5)

“David says that his house is 'certainly legitimate (l' ken) with God' (II Sam 23:5). As an attribute of royalty, ken connotes reliability as well as validity.” (Andersen and Freedman)

“The text pays less attention to the content of the contract between God and David than to the claim that the contract was legally binding because it was thoroughly executed and officially filed, but the reference to David's house and the characterization of the covenant as being eternal suggests that the covenant formalized the elevation of David as the anointed king of the God of Jacob as an enduring appointment that would be passed on in perpetuity to David's descendants.” (Roberts)

Schnittjer wraps up the thought in verses 3-5 with the following comparison: “Jeremiah uses the permanence of creational structures to signify the enduring election of God's people...(Jer 31:35-36). David likewise uses dependable cosmic events to speak of the fidelity of God to uphold his covenantal word (2 Sam 23:3-5).”

    But the godless are like thorns that are thrown away

            for they cannot be picked up with the hand.

            To touch them one uses an iron bar or spear

    and they            are                               consumed in fire. (23:6-7)

Payne summarizes the meaning of these two verses as follows: “Dangerous men require very careful handling, but there are nevertheless ways of dealing with them and destroying them.”

And Baldwin writes that “just as the farmer had to clear his land of thorn bushes, and contrive, without injuring himself, to make a fire of them, so David saw the implications of judgment for those who opposed God's cause. Like thorns, they were not only useless but dangerous, choking the growth of all that was good (Mt. 13:7, 22; cf. Is. 33:12; Heb. 6:8). In the light of God's word to him, David saw clearly in his old age how people's destiny becomes polarized either for or against God. This poem is David's 'last word', his final legacy.”

One could alternatively combine verses 5-7 as a single poem taking the form of antithetical parallelism in which David's fate in v. 5 is purposely contrasted with that of the godless in verses 6-7. For example, see McCarter's comments above.

MATTHEW 7:13-28

A five-part organization of the Gospel of Matthew first proposed by B. W. Bacon in 1930 is perhaps the most popular. It begins by recognition of five similar statements in the book, each of which directly follows a block of discourse material.

“And when Jesus finished these sayings...” (7:28)

            “And when Jesus had finished instructing his twelve disciples...” (11:1)

            “And when Jesus had finished these parables...” (13:53)

            “Now when Jesus had finished these sayings...” (19:1)

            “When Jesus had finished all these sayings...” (26:1)

The discourses which precede these pronouncements are well recognized to be arranged topically and to cover subjects that are, respectively, ethical, missionary, kergymatic, ecclesiastical and eschatological. (Nixon) But Brown notes, “Although each major discourse has a different focus, the theme of God's reign is accented in each of them.” Also, each of the discourses ends on a note of judgment. (Snodgrass)

And Cahill summarizes the contents of these verses as follows: “The warnings not to be taken in by false prophets in sheep's clothing (7:15), or by trees that do not bear good fruit (7:16-20), or by those who perform showy works in Jesus' name (7:22-23), or to build one's house on 'sand' by not actually living up to Jesus' words (7:24-27) suggest choice, responsibility, difficulty, and the possibility of delusion in the life of would-be discipleship. The allusions to the 'narrow gate' (7:13-14) and the Lords's repudiation of 'evildoers' on the 'last day' (7:22-23) are explicit references to judgment.”

With that as a starting point, let us consider in more depth the passage concluding the first of these five “sermons” of Christ. It consists of four pithy teachings of Jesus, each one involving a sharp contrast in behavior and having a definite literary structure designed to make it memorable and easy to remember.

Ryken says, “As He concludes His discourse (7:13-27), Jesus sharpens the issues and begins to force a response from His listeners. He leaves His audience with a challenge, urging them to make sure that they are members of God's kingdom. In order to make His point with impact, Jesus used three memorable contrasts – the narrow gate that leads to life vs. the wide gate that leads to destruction (vss. 13-14), true prophets vs. false prophets (vss. 15-23), and the wise man who builds his house on a rock vs. the foolish man who builds on the sand (vss. 24-27).”

Before proceeding, I should point out that Blomberg, for one, combines verses 15-20 and 21-23 into one example and says concerning the 'three examples,' “In each case the first category refers to those who hear, obey, and are saved; the second, to those who only hear and so are destroyed. In each case eternal life and judgment are at stake.” Few commentators follow his lead.

The Narrow and Wide Gate (Matthew 7:13-14)

Enter the narrow gate

        1. The gate is wide

                2. and the way is easy

                        3. that leads to destruction

                                4. there are many who take it

        1'. The gate is narrow

                2'. and the road is hard

                        3'. that leads to life

                                4'. and there are few who find it

“This is the second command. Cf. Luke xiii 24...The Lukan version is more emphatically eschatological in context than is the exposition here. But it is likely that we are to see this verse against the context of vss. 22ff. In this case, Go in by the narrow gate will be understood as meaning that entrance into the Kingdom --- whether the Kingdom of heaven or the Kingdom of God – is through a narrow gate.” (Albright and Mann)

Overman says, “For the frequent metaphor of the two roads, see e.g., Prov 7.27; 15.24; Jer 21.8.” And Tilden adds Luke 13:23-24; Psalm 1; Deuteronomy 30:19; John10:7 and John 14:6 to that list.

Boice warns that “we may imagine a man who has agreed with the bulk of this teaching [so far in the Sermon] but who thinks he can put it into practice merely by exerting a little more effort while continuing in the same general direction in which he is going. To such a man these verses are a reminder that the Christian life must begin with an about-face and that it cannot be carried on without a personal commitment to the Lord Jesus.”

Hill feels that the translation 'hard' in section 2' “is rather misleading. The Greek tethlimmene means 'pressed together', i.e. not spacious and roomy; it is not the road for everybody; only the few (cf. the antithesis of 22.14) will find and follow this path.”

Good and Bad Trees (Matthew 7:15-20)

Beware of false prophets

        1. You will know them by their fruits

                2. Every good tree bears good fruit

                        3. The bad tree bears bad fruit

                2'. A good tree cannot bear bad fruit

                        3'. nor can a bad tree bear good fruit

                2''. Every tree that does not bear good fruit is cut down and burned

        1'. You will know them by their fruits.

“The unbelieving world itself is like a wolf in its hostility to disciples of Jesus (Mt 7:15, 10:16; Lk 10:3).” (Dictionary of Biblical Imagery)

France: “These false prophets are described as 'coming to you,' and so apparently as people from outside the disciple group who nonetheless wish to represent themselves as on the same side. The contrast between their appearance and what they are 'inside' makes it clear that, unlike the self-deluded charismatics of vv. 22-23, they are consciously putting on an act...The instruction to 'beware' of them implies the same need for discrimination on the part of God's people as we saw in v. 6. People cannot always be taken at their face value, and the more so when they claim to speak for God.”

“What a man is in his inner being comes to expression outwardly, especially in words and deeds. Says Luke (6:45) in a similar context (see 6:44), 'The good person out of the good treasure of his heart produces good, and the evil person out of his evil (treasure) produces evil; for out of the abundance of the heart his mouth speaks.' Character reveals itself.” (Hendricksen)

Saying and Doing (Matthew 7:21-23)

        1. Not everyone who says,”Lord, Lord” will enter the kingdom of heaven

                2. but only the one who does the will of my Father in heaven

        1'. But on that day, many will say, Lord, Lord

                2'. did we not do works in your name?

        1'. But I will say, “I never knew you”

                2''. Go away from me, you evildoers.”

Note the regular alternation of the concepts of saying and doing.

Beale and Gladd ask, “What is the precise meaning of the phrase 'mysteries of the kingdom'?...The phrase...should probably be rendered as 'mysteries belonging to the kingdom of heaven'...Mark and Luke render this idea as 'mystery / mysteries of the kingdom and God ' (Mark 4:11; Lk 8:10), whereas Matthew renders it 'mysteries of the kingdom of heaven' (cf., e.g., Mt 3:2; 4:17; 5:3,10,19-20; 7:21; 8:11; 10:7)...Jesus even says in Matthew 7:21-23 that those who were regarded as teachers of the church will be judged as false teachers at the final judgment.”

Payne explains that the promise given in Matthew 7:21 “is not simply life after death, as it may be elsewhere (cf. II Tim 4:18...); for the context is that of the final judgment, contrast vv. 19, 22-23...on the wicked.”

“This is the first use in Matthew of 'Lord,' kyrie, as an address to Jesus. God has been referred to frequently, both in OT quotation and in Matthew's own editorial style, as ho Kyrios...The vocative in itself carries no necessary theological connotation, but simply recognizes a superior social status...But in Matthew's narrative, addressed to Jesus as a Galilean villager of no social prominence, and frequently in the context of expecting miraculous help, kyrie clearly carries more weight, and the fact that Matthew uses it substantially more than the other Synoptic evangelists indicates that he was well aware of this more than purely social dimension.” (France)

Tale of Two Houses (Matthew 7:24-27)

        1. Everyone who hears and acts upon my words

                2. will be like the wise man

                        3. who built his house upon a rock

                                4. the rains, flood and wind came

                                        5. but it did not fall

                                                6. because it had been founded on a rock

        1'. Everyone who hears but does not act upon my words

                2'. will be like the foolish man

                        3'. who built his house upon the sand

                                4'. the rains, flood and wind came

                                        5. and it fell – and great was its fall

Myers says, “Instructions on how to really understand the Bible are given over and over again in both Old and New Testaments. 'He who does what is true comes to the light' [John 3:21]. The wise man – the one who built his house on the rock – differs from the foolish man in that he acts upon the word [Matthew 7:24-29]. The power of Jesus' words is known in the doing of them.”

“In the NT, flock is still used for Israel, described by Jesus as lost (Mt 15:24) as well as weakened and exhausted (Mt 9:36). Mostly, however, it refers to the remnant band of disciples he is gathering (Lk 10:3; Jn 10:1-16). On account of its smallness, Jesus talks of this as his 'little' flock. Its members are commanded not to fear on that account, even with the danger of deceptive attacks from within and overt attacks from without (Mt 7:15; 10:16) and the certainty of its undergoing great tribulation in the future (Mk 14:27), because it is God who is giving it the kingdom (Lk 12:32).” (DBI)

 

ACTS 21:13

The prophet Agabus warns Paul that if he goes to Jerusalem, he will be arrested or worse. Despite that warning, Paul persists in his plan. The main question that arises from that decision is whether or not Paul is thereby purposely disobeying a word from God. Here are the thoughts of several noted Bible scholars regarding the above verse:

Trenchard: “The symbolic and vocal prophecy of Agabus (v.11) is very much in the style of OT prophetic ministry, and gave rise to renewed appeals that Paul should spare himself bonds and imprisonment. But his witness before governors and kings must needs be fulfilled...”

Witherington notes that the word kyrios ('Lord') occurs in Acts in conjunction with the name Jesus or the phrase Jesus Christ exactly 14 times in Acts, a highly symbolic number representing perfection. One of these occurrences is found in Acts 21:13.

“In spite of Paul's own awareness of coming trouble (20:22-23), he continues his journey to Jerusalem. Strangely enough, “Christians of Tyre, who have been 'warned by the Spirit (21:4)', try to deter him. Moreover, his future problems are stressed by the symbolic message given to him by Agabus (21:10-11). Yet in the face of all such premonitions, Paul's resolve remains firm 'for the sake of the name of the Lord Jesus' (21::13)...Paul is stirred by the emotion with which the counsel is being given, but he is determined not to be deterred by it.” (Fitzmyer)

Green says, “Luke develops the content of salvation along five related lines. First, salvation entails incorporation and participation in the christocentric community of God's people. These are people whose unity is emphatic in the narrative; who together 'call upon the name of the Lord [Jesus]' and are baptized in his name..; who heal...and preach...in his name; and who suffer for his name (Acts 5:41; 9:16; 21:13).”

Toussaint: “After the people heard that prophecy, they pleaded with Paul not to go to Jerusalem (cf. v. 4) Even Luke joined in the plea, as indicated by the use of 'we' here. But the apostle would not be dissuaded.”

Haarbeck writes, “In secular Gk. klaio ['weep'] does not express remorse of sorrow, but physical or mental pain which is outwardly visible,..klaio is similarly used in the NT, i.e. to express violent emotion, e.g. at parting (Acts 21:13)...”

“We empathize with the tenderness of Paul's beloved friend and admire his tough directness. The account seems to contrast the two qualities sharply, but it shows us how both can be blended by the guidance and power of the Holy Spirit.” (Ogilvie)

I am reminded of the somewhat similar occasion when Jesus revealed His coming death and was opposed strongly by Peter, who tried to prevent it. As Neil says, “Paul refuses to be deflected from the path which he believes to be the will of God (cf. Lk. 22:42) and, as his Master had done, 'set his face to go to Jerusalem' (Lk. 9:51).”

Stott wrestles with what appears to be a contradiction in Acts 20:12-13 and 21:4. “Paul is urged not to go to Jerusalem 'through the Spirit,' and yet Paul ignored both messages.” Stott resolves this problem by saying, “The better solution is to draw a distinction between a prediction and a prohibition. Certainly Agabus only predicted that Paul would be bound and handed over to the Gentiles (21:11); the pleadings with Paul which followed are not attributed to the Spirit and may have been the fallible (indeed mistaken) human deduction from the Spirit's prophecy.”

“If Agabus did not interpret his prophecy to mean that Paul should not go on to Jerusalem, Paul's companions and the Casesarean Christians drew that conclusion, and entreated him with tears not to proceed...Not that he was unmoved by their weeping; he felt his determination weakening under it, and entreated them in turn to desist. He could not turn aside from the path of obedience and sacrifice, and he was prepared, if necessary, not merely to be imprisoned but to give up his very life in Jerusalem for his Master's sake.” (Bruce)

 

"HERE I AM" IN THE BIBLE

There are five pivotal moments in the Bible in which a person or group of people respond to God's call with the above statement. I would like to briefly recount each of them.

Exodus 3:4

This is the story of Moses seeing the burning bush in the wilderness and hearing God's voice issuing from it.

Durham: “Theophany and call are brought together in the narrative dealing with Moses for the same reason they are brought together in the narrative dealing with Israel at Sinai. Theophany describes the advent of God's presence; call describes the opportunity of response to that presence. Theophany provides both stimulus and authority for response; response, despite a choice, is virtually inevitable following theophany.”

Knight adds, “God accosts Moses on a working day, not at a festival, not at a moment of worship within the cult. So the God of whom ex[odus] writes is the god of secular human experience, of a working man, of life lived without ecstatic abnormal insights or visions.Thus, instead of this being a shocking and traumatic experience when the 'other world' suddenly impinges on his consciousness, Moses is not at all upset.”

“The whole concept of Christian calling derives from the belief that God has communicated with us personally, and has called us by name. If we forget this, the doctrine of election can become unrelated to our obedience, and so impersonal, abstract and forbidding.” (Cole)

I Samuel 3:4,6,8

When the boy Samuel is sleeping in the temple, he keeps being awakened by a voice calling his name. He assumes it is Eli summoning him, but Eli knows better and informs Samuel that it is the LORD instead, and that Samuel should listen to what He has to say.

Here are some insights by Francesca Murphy into what is going on here:

“Samuel begins to be the person God intends by being called and responding...But why is a classic prophetic call narrative used to characterize Samuel, who was hardly a classic prophet, like Isaiah, and what is it doing here, at the outset of Regum, when Samuel was not a king?”

“In fact, 1 Samuel sees the rise of the monarchy in Israel in the context of theological ethics.”

“In order to become a moral individual, a person, Samuel must be called out of the familial collective and enter a direct relationship to God. God does not, here, just call an individual to effect a change in Israel's culture: he creates an individual so to do.”

“The idea here, which enabled Israel to begin to rise above the tribal or collectivist principle, is that God's call separates a person from his or her culture, and this break with the internal social dynamic of a culture gives them the spiritual wherewithal to found a genuine community, spreading from and embedded in the work or task that is named in the divine call.”

Isaiah 6:8

The setting of this verse is when Isaiah sees a vision of God on His heavenly throne surrounded by seraphim. One of them touches Isaiah's tongue with a live coal followed by God's voice asking whom He should send to proclaim His word to the people. At that point, Isaiah volunteers by saying, “Here am I. Send me.”

Blenkinsopp notes, “The purification of the lips prepared Isaiah for his prophetic mission, which he accepted eagerly, unlike Moses (Ex 3.11), Jeremiah (Jer 1.6), and Jonah (Jon 1.3).”

“Now, for the first time, God speaks. It is as if Isaiah was not ready to hear before this moment, as if the possibility of service could not be appreciated until this time. But for whatever reason, God makes it plain that while spiritual experience is never merely a means to an end, neither is it an end in itself...It is very possible, in the light of 1 K. 22:19, that who will go for us is an address to the heavenly host, either visibly present or implied. That Isaiah is neither directly addressed nor coerced is suggestive. Perhaps it is so because Isaiah does not need coercion, but rather needs an opportunity to volunteer.” (Oswalt)

Acts 9:10

In this verse, a disciple named Ananias is contacted by God, at which point he responds, “Here I am, Lord.” Ananias is then commissioned to seek out the recently blinded Saul and preach the Good News to him.

“Ananias' response is magnificent. 'Here I am, Lord.' That's how to react on the Way. Here I am; here is my mind, my heart, my willingness, my guidable disposition. We can't get very far on the Way without that. Prayer is not lofty rhetoric; it's availability, reporting in for duty, expressing readiness for anything.” (Ogilvie)

Fitzmyer reminds us that “he [i.e. Ananias] would actually have been among those whom Saul intended to cart off to prison in Jerusalem. The Lord uses an opponent of Saul as a instrument in the latter's conversion.”

Acts 10:33

A minor variation of this phrase even appears a chapter later when the Gentile Cornelius receives a vision from God telling him to contact Simon Peter. Cornelius assembles his family and friends and tells Peter, “All of us are here.”

Stott says, “It was a remarkable acknowledgement that they were in God's presence, that the apostle Peter was to be the bearer of God's word to them, and that they were all ready and open to listen to it. No preacher today could ask for a more attentive audience.” In this, he is probably echoing F.F. Bruce's earlier words: “Did ever a preacher of the gospel have a more promising audience than this?”

LUKE 14: OLD TESTAMENT BACKGROUND

Luke 14:1-6 Nolland says, “Although the setting and important details are quite different, the argument in Luke 14:1-6 is...broadly equivalent to that in Matthew 12:9-14. A Sabbath meal in the home of a leading Pharisee is yet more provocative than the synagogue as a setting for healing (Lk 14:1). And this time Jesus initiates the confrontation by putting the question of the lawfulness of Sabbath healing (Lk. 14:3). Now, rather than a sheep, we have an ass or an ox (or possibly a son or an ox – the text is slightly uncertain) (Lk 14:5). Either could...echo Deuteronomy 5:14.”

Luke 14:3 One glaring omission committed by the Pharisees was in purposely ignoring the Old Testament teachings on the subject. As Fitzmyer explains, “The attitude presupposed by Jesus in that second question reflects Deut 22:4, the Mosaic injunction to help a brother whose ox or ass falls by the way.”

Luke 14:3-13 As Ellis says, “The churchmen display a thoroughly false standard of values. Not only are they hard-hearted toward the sick man (ff. 3f.) but both guests (v. 7) and host (v. 12) are status-seekers and social climbers. The principles (vv. 5, 10, 13) that Jesus enunciates were known and approved by all. The sting of his words is their utter candor...He undresses their concealed and half-forgotten motives and lays them naked on the dinner table. Most embarrassingly, he applies the principles to the churchmen's relation to God.”

Luke 14:6 “Conscious of modernity's anthropocentrism, Christians are noticing Jesus' background assertion that God attends to the death of each sparrow (Matt. 10:29). And they are noticing that Jesus rightly presumes that even his theological opponents will not dare to deny that it is good to break the Sabbath in order to rescue a sheep or an ox from a pit (Matt. 12:11; Luke 14:5).” (Greenway)“

Craddock notes, “It is significant that following the Jerusalem conference, which Luke reports in Acts 15, the Gentile churches are asked to show deference to Judaism only in matters of idolatry, unchastity and foods (Acts 15:20). No mention is made of the Sabbath. Either the matter had already been settled, or it was not a critical issue, or it was left to the convictions of different Christian communities to observe or not observe the Sabbath...One suspects, however, in Luke's time and place, that...Sabbath observance still generated a great deal of tension.”

As a result of such actions and teachings of Jesus, “the extreme (and potentially legalistic) forms of refraining from work that prevailed under the law are softened and set within the context of God's new redemptive work...Given this NT modification we are left with a picture of the sabbath as a day of doing good as well as a day of worship and cessation from ordinary work.” (DBI)

Luke 14:8-10 Soards notes a parallel between this teaching and Proverbs 25:6-7.And Pao and Schnabel similarly feel that Luke was thus “adapting sapiential advice for court etiquette to a banquet setting.”

Luke 14:11 “God acknowledges the 'humble,' and he judges those who seek honorable status. Jesus' aphorism alludes to Ezek. 21:26 ('Exalt that which is low, abase that which is high...'). The source of honor...in God's kingdom is derived not from the social order described by affluent friends, siblings, relatives, or rich neighbors (cf. 14:12), but from the judgment of God...” (Pao and Schnabel)

Luke 14:12-14 This advice to invite to dinner those who cannot repay you comes from Proverbs 22:9.

Luke 14:15-24 Pao and Schnabel have much to say regarding the OT background of this teaching of Christ. Here are just a few of their thoughts:

“It has been suggested that the excuses of the invited guests as described in 14:18-20 allude to Deut. 20.”

“The excuse of the third guest in 14:20...has been said o recall Deut. 20:5-7; 24:5...recognizing the status of newlyweds.”

“The suggested links with Deut. 20 depend in a large measure on the question whether Luke's central section corresponds to the contents and themes of Deut. 1-26. If this is indeed the case, then the parable of the Great Supper can be interpreted in terms of protesting and challenging abuses of Deuteronomy's theology and ethic of election...”

“Another question relates to 'the poor, the crippled, the blind, and the lame' (14:21) who are invited instead of the original, evidently wealthy and respectable guests. Some have suggested a link with Lev. 21:17-23, where such people are described as being unqualified for and therefore excluded from priestly service, even if they were Levites...”

“Some commentators relate the list of the disadvantaged to the OT tradition of Yahweh's mercy for the downtrodden, the oppressed, the ill, and the weak...with reference to Isa. 35:5-6a: 'Then the eyes of the blind shall be opened, and the ears of the deaf unstopped; then the lame shall leap like a deer, and the tongue of the speechless sing for joy').”

“Traditions in the OT of the eschatological banquet help us to understand the parable. Note, for example, Isa. 25:6-10...Granted that the OT tradition of the eschatological banquet scene reverberates through the parable, one cannot preclude the possibility that Gentiles might be included...”

Luke 14:17 Interestingly, in the story two invitations to the banquet are sent out. Porter quotes Creed as writing, “It was a recognized custom to send a servant to repeat the invitation at the appointed time; cf. Est. 6:14.” In addition, according to Edersheim, there is an ancient Jewish commentary on Lamentations 4:2 which stated that the custom in Jerusalem was to only attend a feast if the invitation was repeated.

Luke 14:20 One of the excuses made for not attending a banquet is that the person invited says he has just gotten married. It is just possible, according to Tilden, that that newlywed is citing quite out of context Deuteronomy 24:5, which teaches that one in his situation should not begin a new business venture or join the army.

Luke 14:26-27 poses a problem for many readers since it talks about hating your family. But this should not cause difficulties if one realizes that the words love and hate in OT vernacular really imply love more and love less, respectively. See passages such as Genesis 29:31ff and Deuteronomy 21:15ff, etc. F.F. Bruce says that “it is natural for men and women to make what provision they can for their nearest and dearest. Jesus' emphasis lay rather on the necessity of treating the kingdom of God as nearer and dearer still. Because of the natural resistance on the part of his hearers to accepting this necessity with literal seriousness, he insisted on it in the most arresting and challenging language at his command.”

Pao and Schnabel note: “The first part of this stipulation alludes to the commandment: 'Honor your father and mother' (Exod. 20:12; Deut. 5:16). Some scholars argue that 14:26 constitutes the annulment of the fourth commandment of the Decalogue.., while others point out that this is unlikely in light of 16:17 and that the rabbis were well aware of the fact that the Torah sometimes presented conflicting claims, a situation that did not entail a 'deconstruction of Torah but the subordination of one commandment to another (Allison..). Jesus' requirement has been explained as echoing Deut. 33:9, where Levi's devotion to the Torah is highlighted...Levi is reported to have said of his father and mother, 'I regard them not,' because 'he ignored hid kin,and did not acknowledge his children; for they observed your word, and kept your covenant.' The fact that Deut. 33:9 is quoted in Jewish texts suggests that Jesus' stipulation does not contradict Torah...”

Luke 14:28-32 This wise advice about carefully considering your actions first before proceeding is paralleled in Proverbs 24:6.

Lane points out: “This story emphasizes that the unfinished tower draws a crowd of curious onlookers who turn into those who mock and jeer. In the Genesis event [11:1-9] the erection of the tower starts out as a project, part of whose aim is to mock God. But the roles are reversed, and God turns in derision upon the people and confuses their language. Here the spectators become the deriders.”