II KINGS 3: NEW ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

2 Kings 3: New Archaeological Evidence

It has been said that history is written by the victor. And we have a prime example here with three surviving accounts of the same events told from three different perspectives. One such source is the biblical narrative and another is the Mesha Stele, of which I have earlier written. The gist of that post is given below:

“In 1868, an Arab sheikh showed a German missionary a 4-ft. high basalt slab. The missionary expressed interest in buying it and did a paper rubbing of the inscription. But a fight broke out between the missionary's servants and the Arabs, and so negotiations were broken off. The Arabs thought something valuable must be hidden inside, and so they heated it in a fire and poured water on it to break it in pieces. The pieces were then carried away as magic amulets to bless their grain.

“An alternative story is given in Biblical Archaeology Today, 20 (3), 2 to account for the breaking of the slab. According to this tradition, some Turks were brought into the negotiations, and the Arabs broke the stone on purpose to keep them from getting it.

“Eventually about 2/3 of the slab, called the Moabite Stone or Mesha Stela, was recovered and it now resides in the Louvre. The writing was shown to be in ancient Moabite, closely related to the Hebrew language. And Hadley explains that this stela (dated to the 9^th century BC) actually contains the first existing example of writing in the fully developed Hebrew script. With the help of the original paper rubbing of the stone, the missing portions have been reconstructed, containing the phrase “House of David.” This confirms the early use of this term for David's dynasty, formerly believed by critics to be a late addition to passages such as II Samuel 7:26 and I Kings 2:24.

“The monument turns out to have been erected by King Mesha of Moab, and it reads in part: “Omri, king of Israel, humbled Moab many days because Chemosh [god of Moab] was angry at his land. His son [Ahab] followed him, and he also said this, but I have triumphed over him and over his house.” Then there are details about how he took back the cities that Israel had occupied. Among those details is the story of Mesha fortifying several cities to the north in order to protect against any Israelite invasions. Mabie feels that this could explain why King Joram of the Northern Kingdom chose to attack Moab from the south instead of the more expected northern approach, an account found in II Kings 3:8.”

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But there is a a more recently discovered altar from Ataruz, uncovered from the actual site of the battle. The archaeological artifacts uncovered from this latter site are described in an article by Ji and Shade in the Summer 2026 issue of BAR magazine.

Among the finds at the Moabite temple at Ataruz was a 1-1/2 ft.tall cylindrical altar with inscriptions on it dated to the end of the ninth century B.C. just following the Moabite King Mesha's rebellion against Israel.

Israel combined with the forces of Judah and Edom to attack Moab. But from this point on, perspectives appear to diverge concerning the results of the battle, with each side claiming the victory. While the inscription on the Moabite altar appears to brag about their victory and the thousands of enemies slain, the biblical account is more balanced and describes how the combined attacking forces under Israel wreaked havoc on the Moabite territory. However, it also states that when they saw the Moabite king sacrificing his own son to the god Chemosh, the Israelites turned away in horror and disgust and broke off the attack.

So one could say in a way that each side was correct in claiming a victory of sorts after the conflict, even if the truth had to be shaded a little by each party.

GALATIANS 6:6-10

A. Those taught should share all good things with their teacher (v. 6)

        B. You reap what you sow (v. 7)

                C. If you sow to your flesh (v. 8a)

                        D. you will reap corruption (v. 8b)

                C'. If you sow to the Spirit (v. 8c)

                        D'. you will reap eternal life (v. 8d)

        B'. We will reap if we do not give up (v. 9)

A'. Let us work for the good of all (v. 10)

Galatians 6:6

Guthrie: “This statement comes rather abruptly after the opening section of this chapter and raises the problem whether any connection exists with what precedes, whether it stands as an isolated statement or whether it introduces the next section...If it arises out of verse 5 it may introduce a necessary modification to avoid any misapprehension.”

Martyn says that “the expression 'the household of faith' (Gal 6:10) can be taken to refer to the brothers and sisters in the Jerusalem church. From these comparisons it is possible to suggest that, in Gal 6:6, Paul means to exhort the Galatians to proceed with their part in his collection of funds for the Jerusalem church.” However, after consideration he rejects this possibility.

Galatians 6:7

“Paul now returns to the idea suggested by v. 22 [of chapter 5], with its metaphor of 'fruit of the Spirit'. While karpos...is more commonly used of 'fruits', it can also be used of 'grain', and the metaphor here is that of grain harvested. This again is a very old biblical simile, used frequently by the Lord both in parable and incidental allusion, though principally with reference to the evangelizing tasks of His disciple....It is worth considering whether the metaphor may not have been re-suggested to Paul's mind by the treatment of Christian giving in the verse immediately before.” (Cole)

John Stott says, “The possibility of being deceived is mentioned several times in the New Testament. Jesus said that the devil was a liar and the father of lies, and He cautioned His disciples against being led astray...Many people are deceived concerning this inexorable law of seed-time and harvest.They sow their seeds thoughtlessly, nonchalantly, and blind themselves to the fact that the seeds they sow will inevitably produce a corresponding harvest. Or they sow seed of one kind and expect to reap a harvest of another. They imagine that somehow they can get away with it. But this is impossible.”

Galatians 6:8

Regarding the idiom of sowing and reaping, Dospel notes: “When people give away their material wealth to support others, it's not a loss but an investment – as when farmers sow seeds to ensure future harvest (see also 1 Corinthians 9:11 and 2 Corinthians 9:6-11.”

He distinguishes this principle from the idea of karma or what goes around comes around in that “the apostle means the eschatological, spiritual harvest” as explained further in v. 9. Dospel adds, “The overall context of the letter reveals another dimension. After Paul's initial mission to Galatia...the local Christians (mostly Gentile converts) were facing demands that they follow Jewish law...Indeed, Paul's teaching about God's grace rejects the notion that one could force his way into the kingdom of God by the merit of his good works.....Rather, the faithful reap salvation 'through the faith in Jesus Christ' (2:16) when they 'sow to the Spirit' (6:9). According to Paul, there are no just deserts, only undeserved mercy.”

Galatians 6:9

“The occasion for the summons in verse 9 not to become weary in doing good may be the continued delay of 'the great harvest.' This delay may be the cause for a lapse in the consciousness of the importance of well-doing – a cause also for the laxity and fatigue hinted here. Well-doing is an epitome of all that is involved in walking by the Spirit, as it has been detailed in the preceding passages. Not only must the Galatians persevere in seeking to do well: they must also do it. The second clause provides the motivation: the harvest is coming, however distant and tardy it may seen. However, the readers should bear in mind that this harvest will come only in due season: at the suitable time, that is, when from God's point of view the time is ripe for it.” (Ridderbos)

Galatians 6:10

Briggs notes that “the family of faith” in this verse translates the Greek meaning “members of the household of faith” as in equivalent phrases found in Ephesians 2:19; I Timothy 3:15; and 1 Peter 4:17.

D.K. Campbell's comment on this verse is as follows: “This passage...speaks clearly about Christian social responsibility, but it should be noted that it is addressed to individual believers. The church is not an agency for social work, though individual Christians are charged to minister in this way as they are able and have opportunity (cf. Rom. 12:17-21).”

I think I know what Campbell is driving at since I am aware that some of the more liberal churches today spend much of their time and energy doing “good works” in their neighborhood. Not that there is anything wrong with that. However, years ago I participated in a small ecumenical discussion group which included one sincere young man from another denomination who listed off all the volunteer activities he had been doing to help those in need. But he admitted to us that he hadn't the slightest idea why he was doing them or what in the world it had to do with Christianity, only that his pastor told him that he must keep doing them. There was a complete disconnect in his mind between anything Jesus or the Bible might have to say on the subject (subjects he was never taught in his church) and doing good works. On the other hand, I have attended churches in which any money or work offered by the members was considered totally wasted effort if it didn't serve the immediate needs and wants of our own congregation. As often is the case in other issues, both extremes are to be avoided.

ANIMAL IMAGERY IN THE PASTORAL EPISTLES

As a challenge to myself, I decided to put together a post on the above subject even though I feared in advance that I might find myself with nothing to write about. The Dictionary of Biblical Imagery states that the “Hebrew and Aramaic of the OT uses about 180 words, the Greek NT about 50 words, to name a total of about 70 types (not species) of animals.” And Avalos adds: “Biblical authors often use animal imagery to express aspects of their culture.”

As expected, a great deal of these references appear in a literal sense in the OT sacrificial laws, as metaphors and similies in the Poetic Writings, and in the context of Jesus' teachings. But what about the letters to Timothy and Titus? Fortunately, I managed to come up with the verses below, mostly in metaphorical contexts, buried in the Pastoral Epistles as well. I say “buried” because these references seldom come out and hit you in the face the way the more obvious similies do with their use of “like” or “as.” But just as it is necessary in a simile to determine exactly which characteristic of A is being compared to B in order to understand that figure of speech, the same applies to metaphorical language. Just a word of caution here: If you are relying solely on a Bible paraphrase, there is a very good chance you will not have the slightest idea what I am talking about here. That iswhy it is often preferable to rely instead on a good fairly literal rendering of the Greek original in order to help you catch such subtlteties which may be present in the original text.

I Timothy 3:7

Vine: “Pagis, a trap, a snare (akin to pegnumi, to fix, and pagineuo, to ensnare...) is used metaphorically of (a) the allurements to evil by which the Devil ensnares one, I Tim. 3:7; 2 Tim. 2:26; (b) seductions to evil, which ensnare those who 'desire to be rich,' I Tim. 6:9...”

As Lea says, “If the overseer has an unsavory reputation with the unsaved world, he and the entire church will fall into disgrace. Paul stated that such a disgrace is a trap set by the devil. When church leaders live in such a way that unsaved outsiders refuse to listen to their message, the devil has clearly lured believers into a trap...In this verse Paul presented Satan as a hunter who lays out traps into which the careless, shortsighted Christian can fall.”

I Timothy 5:18

“This quotation from Dt. 25:4 is used by Paul in I C. 9:9 to support his argument that those who preach the gospel have a right to be supported by those whom they evangelize. It was a favorite text with the rabbis, who, like Paul, did not hesitate to use it it an allegorical sense...By the time the author of the Pastorals came to use it, it had become a stock proof-text to show that the ordained ministy is entitled to some financial reward.” (Hanson)

Lea says that Paul “quoted Deut 25:4 to justify proper treatment for the pastor. Paul reasoned that if God could show concern for the laboring ox, the congregation needed to show proper concern for its pastor. The original intention of refusing to muzzle the ox was to allow the animal an occcasional bite as it moved about the threshing floor. Paul saw expressed in this command a principle that is broader than a mere statement about care for animals.”

“It is too cruel to make an ox work with grain while withholding it (Deut 25:4), and similar courtesy applies to people (1 Cor 9:9; 1 Tim 5:18).” (Dictionary of Biblical Imagery)

I Timothy 6:1

“Servants...under the yoke...draws attention to the non-Christian approach to slaves who were regarded as little more than cattle. The expression strongly brings into focus the servile social conditions of the contemporary world.” (Guthrie)

“The...description, 'under the yoke' (cf. Gal 5:1), is traditional and stresses the harsh social and existential reality of the person who existed as the property of another (whether of an unbeliever or a believer).” (Towner)

Lea agrees the above assertions: “The phrase 'under the yoke' describes the galling, humiliating result of slavery. However, Paul was not suggesting that only those who were more oppressed than usual needed to respond to his words. The contrast in v. 2 suggests that Paul was thinking in this verse particularly of those slaves who had unbelieving masters. Paul insisted that Christian slaves have a genuine respect for their owners.”

I Timothy 6:9

Nute quotes Way as saying, “The metaphor...may be taken from the wild beast which, leaping at the bait hung over a pit, falls in, and is impaled on the stake below.”

“The weakness of the flesh is...described as desire (epithymia), which entices men into temptation (Jas. 1:14), so that the power of the evil one closes over him like a trap (pagis, 1 Tim. 6:9).” (Haarbeck)

As Towner puts it, “The desire for wealth makes one susceptible to corrupt suggestions and unscrupulous opportunities to advance. Second, the next term 'trap' (or 'snare'; see 3:7) moves the sequence from enticement to actual entrapment in a predicament.”

Lea also sees a progression here: “Paul painted three progressive pitfalls in which the willful wealth-seeker becomes entangled. First wealth tempts like a lure and causes people to covet the wrong objects. Second, individuals become entangled like animals dangling in a trap...Third, the trapped ones drown in an almost personified wealth that becomes 'a personal monster, which plunges its victim into an ocean of completee destruction [to quote Guthrie].”

II Timothy 2:26

There is possibly a subtle reference to animals here in that Paul expressed the desire that his opponents might escape the snare that Satan has set for them. This is the second time in the letter where this sort of metaphor is used (see on 3:7 above).

Lea adds, “Paul wanted the false teachers to return to sober thinking and win release from Satan's stranglehold. To think soberly in the spiritual realm demands clear, sound insight about spiritual realities. Some had muddled thinking because they had been taken captive in the snare of the devil. The verb for taking them captive (zogreo) means literally to capture alive...”

However, Towner notes that in this particular verse there is a little ambiguity as to exactly who is doing the capturing, Satan or God. He concludes that “there seems little reason to shift back at this point to the theme of God's activity.”

II Timothy 3:3

Lea says, “The two terms with which v. 3 begins describe people who are inhuman because of their lack of family love and who are 'unforgivng'...in their resistance to all overtures of reconciliation. The first term suggests that the evildoers have become almost beastlike in the breakdown of love for their kin, especially parents.”

Knight: “Anameroi, literally 'untamed,' designates those who are brutal or fierce.” He cites Epictetus 1:3.7, where those who forget their divine origin are likened to lions.”

“The...adjective, 'brutal,' typically described wild animals and people who behave like them. Titus 1:12 (cf. Jude 10) employs the same metaphor with more explicit language. There is no way to identify specifics of behavior here; the category, however, smears those so described as belonging to the category of uncivilized barbarians.” (Towner)

II Timothy 4:6

Towner asks, “But what is the event in Paul's mind, and how does he concepualize it? Both parts of the sentence allude to Paul's death. The first indication of this comes in the first half of the sentence and the passive verb 'to be poured out as a drink offering,' which refers to the libation that was poured out (often) to accopmany and complete a (grain, animal) sacrifice. As such, it does not refer to sacrificial death [such as Christ's on the cross], but the metaphor with its allusion to wine may well intend to evoke the imagery of Paul's blood (i.e., his life) being poured out. And the language clearly places Paul's upcoming death into the sacrificial context as an offering...that accomnpanies another, perhaps more fundamental offering. In the present context he possibly sees his death as complementing the ultimate bloody sacrifice of the Messiah (Col 1:24). Above all, the passive voice and the sacrificial imagery underline that this death is not a meaningless but rather a necessary event in the furtherance of the work of the gospel.”

Thus, from Towner's explanation we see that, at best, there is an indirect correlation between the predicted death of Paul and Christ's atoning death, which in itself is a type of the animal sacrifices of the Old Testament.

Lea adds that Paul “compared the pouring out of his energy in ministry to the pouring out of the wine of an Old Testament drink offering. Such offerings (see Num 15:1-10) were probably a substitute for the blood used in heathen sacrifices (Ps 16:4).” This confirms Towner's very indirect correlation of Paul's sacrifice with animal sacrifices.

Titus 1:12

Knight explains that “therion means 'animal,' often 'wild animal' or 'beast' and is used figuratively, as here, of persons with a 'bestial' nature.”

Quinn asks, “Where didt the author of Titus find this testimony? He submits it as an emanation from a native Cretan with indisputable prophetic credentials. As early as Clement of Alexandria...this hexameter was attributed to Epimenides of Crete, who lived about the sixth century B.C.E....In the case of the devastating caricature in Titus 1:12, no small part of its effectiveness derives from the known nationality of the author. 'This is how Cretans appear to the wise man who was their countryman' is certainly what the author of Titus wished to say...”Crete was proverbial among the ancients for having no dangerous wild animals...The poet asserts that the human beings here give the lie to that belief. They are beasts of prey, not working for their food but idly prowling about for something to satisfy their hunger...”

WHAT HAPPENED TO THE TRIBE OF DAN? -- REVELATION 7:5-8

 

What happened to the Tribe of Dan? – Revelation 7:5-8

One peculiar feature of the listing of the twelve tribes of Israel in Revelation 7 is the fact that the tribe of Dan is missing. As Leon Morris says, “It is not really necessary to list the tribes. But doing this puts some stress on the inclusion of all God's people. “There are 12,000 from each tribe except Dan, which is omitted. The twelve are then made up by including Manasseh as well as Joseph. This is rather curious, for Manasseh is included in Joseph. If there are two Joseph tribes we expect Ephraim and Manasseh. Some scholars see a copyist's error, 'Dan' being read as 'Man' and subsequently taken as an abbreviation for 'Manasseh.' This seems unlikely and it is more probable that Dan was omitted because of its association with idolatry, or because the antichrist was supposed to come from this tribe.” Other commentators flesh out these comments laid out by Morris, and are categorized below on the basis of their arguments.

Textual Confusion

Mounce states: Some have suggested that Dan was inadvertently copied as Man, which was later taken as an abbreviation for Manasseh. This would solve both problems [i.e.the inclusion of both Manasseh and Joseph, since Manasseh...is included in Joseph [and] the omission of Dan. Unfortunately it is only conjecture unsupported by any solid evidence [other than two minor manuscripts].”

It is telling that neither Comfort's nor Metzger's standard commentaries on New Testament textual criticism even mention this possibility.

Bruce is similarly skeptical concerning this hypothetical scenario: “It is strange to find Manasseh listed separately, since the tribe of Joseph (embracing Ephraim and Manasseh) is listed in verse 7. On the other hand, the tribe of Dan is omitted. It may be thought that Dan originally stood where Manasseh now stands, but such a conjecture is unsupported by any evidence.”

Small Size

One problem is in trying to pin down the exact location occupied by the tribe of Dan since it was by far the smallest of the twelve tribes, as a glance at a map found in most study Bibles or in a Bible atlas will show.

Knoppers reviews the biblical evidence: “The tribe of Dan's first settlement is depicted as lying between the territories of Ephraim to the north, Benjamin to the east, and Judah to the south (Josh. 19:40-48)...Already at an early time, a majority of the tribe migrated northward to a site near the source of the Jordan river (Josh. 19.47-48; Judg. 1.34). Hence, Dan often marks the northern border of Israel...however, some members of the tribe must have remained in the south. With the rise of the monarchy, these southern clans were apparently assimilated into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah.”

Thus, Payne quotes Walvoord as stating: “Dan...was small in number, and probably thereafter was classified with Naphtali, born of the same mother as Dan.” But nonetheless, Walvoord adds, “However, Dan is mentioned in Ezekiel 48:2 in the millennial land distribution.” That latter comment, of course, is only pertinent assuming that (1) Ezekiel's listing refers to the end times and (2) is to be taken literally, both of which are highly disputed points.

Aberrant Religious Practices

Concerning the possibility that idolatry was Dan's main problem, one of the few inscriptions identifying

 by name a geographical location in the Bible was found at the remains of 3rd-2nd cent. BC Dan. It

 read, "to God who is in Dan" in Greek and Aramaic. Archeologists have discovered a number of items

 associated with the temple at Dan. From a count of the types of animal bones found there, they 

conclude that sacrificial worship was observed strictly according to levitical laws (Leviticus 7:8, 

32-33; Exodus 29:27-28). This may indicate that God's displeasure with the temple was not at all due 

to how they worshipped, but where they built their temple (i.e. not in Jerusalem).

Morris points out that this was the favored view of the rabbis. “Thus Rabbi Johanan said that Abraham 

prophetically 'saw his descendants who would practice idolatry in Dan.'”

“There are those who are sealed to defy the totality of Satan's secular dominion. They are drawn from

 the various tribes of Israel...Dan and Ephraim are missing from the list. In Old Testament history, both

 these tribes were prominent for their connection with idolatry. Perhaps in a coming day they take the

 lead in hailing the beast as Messiah.” (Phillips)

Ellul, along with most scholars, sees a description of two groups of saved in Chapter 7. One is an 

uncountable number of all non-Jewish people (vv. 9-12). As for the 144,000, he states that “it is a  

group that comes first; it can finally not be evaded that there is the designation of the tribes of Israel

(and even with the device, become traditional, of the suppression of the unfaithful tribe of Dan,

 replaced by Manasseh, still an issue of Joseph, as the tribe of Joseph.). All this denotes the first people

 of God, composed as this people has been, with a specific election.”

Dan as the tribe of the Antichrist

The early church father Iraeneus took this idea from the Greek version of Jeremiah 8:16 solely on the

 words, “The snorting of his horses was heard from Dan.” (Douglas) And in the apocryphal Testament

of Daniel, it states that Satan is that tribe's prince. Morris adds, “Dan's bad reputation may be quite old,

for this tribe (along with Zebulun) is omitted from the genealogies in the early chapters of I 

Chronicles.”

Bruce responds to the above by stating: “But this roll-call of the tribes is schematic; we are not dealing 

with a census tribe by tribe as in Num. 1:20ff.; 26:5ff., and need not be over-concerned about the

 inclusion of Manasseh or the exclusion of Dan.”

GOD'S TWO-FOLD COMMAND IN GENESIS 2:15

God's words to Adam and Eve as they entered the Garden of Eden were that they were to guard and till it. Those same two verbs ('bd and smr, respectively) appear in tandem elsewhere in the Bible, but are often hard to recognize since there a variety of options translators have at hand with which to render them into English. Concerning just Genesis 2:15, we can see the following:

        NEB: till and care

        Jerusalem Bible: cultivate and take care of

        Living Bible: tend and care for

        KJV: dress and keep

        NIV: work and take care of

        RSV and NRSV: till and keep

Other possible renderings of 'abad include: do, make, move, and work. Similarly, shamar can mean: beware, look narrowly, mark, observe, preserve, regard, reserve, save, spy, take heed, wait for, or watch. Below are selected comments from different scholarly sources who attempt to shed light on this difficult passage:

Ellison: “It is to be noted that man had not only to till the garden but also to 'guard' it – take care is an unduly weak rendering of samar..; there was danger, unspecified, outside.”

Kline: “Subjugation of the earth (cf. 1:28) began with the cultivation of the garden. Keep it is perhaps a cultic charge, i.e. to guard the sanctity of God's dwelling; cf. the use of the same verb samar in 3:24; Ne. 13:22; Zc. 3:7.”

Jacques Ellul closes his book The Politics of God and the Politics of Man with what he calls 'Meditating on Inutility' in which he takes God's commands in Genesis 2:15 as a starting point. He describes our basic position with these words: “We are driven by the utility of the world and the importance of results...What matters is that it be useful.” But in contrast, he suggests, “To be controlled by utility and the pursuit of efficacy is to be subject to the strictest determination of the actual work. To want to attain results is necessarily not to be witness to the free gift of God. If we are ready to be unworthy or unprofitable servants (although busy and active at the same time), then our works can truly rebound to the glory of him who freely loved us first. God loved us because he is love and not to get results.” As one pastor of my youth once said, “God calls us to be faithful, not successful.”

Merrill says, “When God created Adam, he placed him in the garden for the express purpose of working ('bed) and overseeing (smr) it (Gen 2:15). The garden – perhaps a microcosm of all creation – provided a testing ground for humanity.” Unfortunately, this was a test which they failed to pass.

“The word we have translated dress is 'abad,' the normal Hebrew verb meaning 'to serve.' So again the note is sounded that man is placed in the garden as servant. He is there not to be served but to serve. The second verb – keep or 'tend' (Heb. samar) – carries a slightly different nuance. The basic meaning is 'to exercise great care over,' to the point, if necessary, of guarding...The same root is used in the next chapter to describe the cherubs who are on guard to prevent access to the tree of life in the garden (Gen. 3:24). The garden is something to be protected more than it is something to be possessed.” (Hamilton)

Although Hamilton neglects to mention the fact, note that both 'abad and samar appear together at the beginning and conclusion of the Garden of Eden episode to draw a boundary around it, much as there was an impenetrable boundary around the Garden, to form what is called in literary terms an inclusio.

“The expression work the ground ('abad with 'adama as object) appears in Gen. 2:5, 15; 3:23; 4:2, 12; Isa. 30:24; Zech. 13:5; Prov. 12:11; 28:19 (compare Ps. 104:14). This is an idiomatic expression and hence any effort to use the sense 'serve' in the verb 'abad is misguided.” (Collins)

But Ross says, “The two infinitives (translated 'to serve it' and 'to keep it') are...significantly chosen. The two verbs are used throughout the Pentateuch for spiritual service. 'Keep' (samar) is used for keeping the commandments and taking heed to obey God's Word; 'serve' ('abad) describes the worship and service of the Lord, the highest privilege a person can have. Whatever activity the man was to engage in in the garden (and there is no reason to doubt that physical activity was involved, it was described in terms of spiritual service of the Lord.”

Wenham expands on the above idea: “'abad 'to serve, till' is a very common verb and is often used of cultivating the soil (2:5; 3:23; 4:2,12, etc.). The word is commonly used in a religious sense of serving God (e.g. Deut 4:19), and in priestly texts, especially of the tabernacle duties of the Levites (Num 3:7-8; 4:23-24, 26, etc.). Similarly samar 'to guard, to keep' has the simple profane sense of 'guard' (4:9; 30:31), but is is even more commonly used in legal texts of observing religious commands and duties (17:9; Lev 18:5) and particularly of the Levitical responsibility for guarding the tabernacle from intruders (Num 1:53; 3:7-8). It is striking that here and in the priestly law these two terms are juxtaposed (Num 3:7-8; 8:26; 18:5-6), another pointer to the interplay of tabernacle and Eden symbolism already noted [in the rabbinic literature]. It should be noted that even before the fall man was expected to work; paradise was not a life of leisured unemployment.”

Walton's five-page exposition on the Garden of Eden episode expands even more on some of the above ideas. I will not attempt to quote him extensively here, but merely highlight a few of the ideas he brings forth in his essay:

“When we see that creation as a whole was understood in terms of a cosmic temple complex, it would be logical to understand the garden as the antechamber to the Holy of Holies. Eden proper would be the Holy of Holies, and the garden adjoins it as the antechamber...With this understanding it can be appreciated that in the aftermath of the Fall, the greatest loss was not access to paradise; it was access to God's presence.”

“The verbs 'abad and samar...are terms most frequently encountered in discussions of human service to God rather than descriptions of agricultural tasks. The verb 'abad certainly can refer to farming activity (e.g. Gen 2:5; 3:23), but in those contexts the nuance of the verb is conditioned by its direct object (the ground). When the verb does not take a direct object, it often refers to the work connected with one's vocation (e.g.Ex 20:9). The broader sense of the word is often connected to religious service deemed as worship (e.g. Ex 3:12) or of priestly functionaries serving in the sanctuary precinct (e.g. Num 3:7-10). In these cases, the object o f the verb usually refers to what or whom is being worshipped (e.g. Ex 4:23; 23:33).”

Walton's conclusion is based on four pillars: “(1) since there are several contexts in which samar is used for levitical service along with 'abad (e.g., Num 3:8-9), (2) since the contextual use of samar here favors sacred service, (3) since 'abad is as likely to refer to sacred service as to agricultural tasks and (4) since there are other indications that the garden is being portrayed as sacred space, it is likely that the tasks given to Adam are of a priestly nature: caring for sacred space was a way of upholding creation. By preserving order, chaos was held at bay. If the priestly vocabulary in Genesis 2:15 indicates the same kind of thinking here, the point of caring for sacred space should be seen as much more than landscaping or even priestly duties. Maintaining order made one a participant with God in the ongoing task of sustaining the equilibrium God had established in the cosmos.”

Additional insights into this ubiquitous verb pair can be gained by consulting the other OT references given above. As just one small example, Schutz says this regarding the Septuagint version of Proverbs 13:3; 16:7; and 19:16, “he who guards his mouth, his way, keeps the commandment (in each case phylasso) preserves or keeps his life (tereo).”

REVELATION 9:1

Although we would love to be in the know concerning the meaning of all the bizarre symbols and events taking place in this final book of the Bible, when it comes to this puzzling verse involving a falling star the best we can do is list some of the possibilities without being too definite in our opinion as to which is the one and only interpretation.

Firstly, we must always keep in mind that Revelation is filled with symbolic and non-literal language. As Hagner says, “Out of the 28 occurrences of the words [aster and astron, i.e. stars, in the Bible], only five may be described as ordinary or literal...The real meaning of this language is theological … Momentous events have occurred and are yet to occur – all of which are part of the same fabric of judgment and blessing, and call for the most exalted language.”

The Dictionary of Biblical Imagery goes on to say, “Virtually all the biblical star motifs converge in the book of Revelation, where more than a dozen verses contain images of stars...Amid the cataclysmic events at the end of history, stars fall from the sky (Rev 6:13; 8:10; 9:1; 12:4) and refuse to give their light (Rev 8:12).”

To demonstrate the diversity of opinions regarding the identity of the one fallen from heaven who is given the key to the abyss, I will first quote from Morris, who says, “Angels were sometimes called stars (cf. 1.20) and it seems likely that this star was an angel. Some take 'fallen' very literally and think of a 'fallen angel'. But this is probably reading too much into it. On the basis of certain apocryphal passages Charles argues that when the imagery is that of a star there is not much difference between falling...and descending...So this verse will mean much the same as xx.1.” Morris reviews previous scholarly opinions on the subject of the star's identity, which include such diverse suggestions as: Nero, a fallen angel, an evil spirit, Satan, the Word of God, an angel such as Uriel, or Christ Himself. Morris' succinct conclusion is “With the experts so divided it is unwise to be dogmatic: John does not identify him and we simply do not have enough information to supply the lack.”

This same fallen personage appears in Revelation 9:11, where we are given a little more information to go by, but still not enough to pin down his identity. As Davids puts it, “The identity of this ruler is unclear. Is he an angel, perhaps the one who opens the pit and then is sent to control the host he allows out? John normally uses 'angel' for one of those loyal to God; there is also plenty of evidence in Scripture to accept the idea of a destroying angel. Or is he one of the host allowed out, himself a fallen angel or demon? The evidence is fairly well balanced, but given John's use of the term 'angel,' we suspect that the first suggestion is correct.”

Below are quotes from a number of other Bible scholars offered to demonstrate how divided the “experts” are. Based on the disagreements between them, we would probably be best to take Morris' advice and exercise a little humility regarding the subject.

Ford: “The seer did not see a star falling from heaven to earth but a star which had already fallen. The author probably identified the star with an angel (cf. II Enoch 30:14), but stars may also represent men...Here in ch. 9 the fifth and sixth trumpets are blown, introducing hostile powers from the nether world and from the earth. Yet everything is still under the authority of God.. This is indicated by the bestowal of the key to the abyss in vs. 1...the prophet records having seen a fallen star, probably an angel who has transgressed the commandments of God and whose realm is now not heaven but earth.”

Beasley-Murray: “The fifth trumpet introduces a plague of demonic locusts. The fact that the star seen by John has fallen from heaven to earth does not necessitate its being a 'fallen' angel. The movement is narrated merely to show that the 'star' came down from heaven to earth to open the abyss, wherein dwelt the demonic hordes.”

“God's final acts of redemption and judgment are foreshadowed by astronomical signs. The prophets and our Lord foretell such signs; and in Revelation they are prominent.” (Fermer)

Ruiz identifies this personage by citing v. 11 as well as other pertinent passages such as Isaiah 14:12 and Luke 10:18. He adds, “The name Abaddon which means 'Destruction,' denotes the depths of Sheol (Job 26:6; see Prov 15:11; Sheol and Abaddon are the abode and state – destruction – of the dead).”

Bruce's opinion is that he is “Probably a fallen angel (cf. 12:4), possibly identical with Abaddon-Apollyon, the angel of the abyss (verse 11). In Enoch 86:1 'a star fell from heaven' refers to the first fallen angel, who was followed by other 'stars'...”

“Finally, in chapter 9:1-12, there is even the unchaining of the Abyss, that is to say, the return to chaos, the plunge again into nothingness. Abaddon is absolute destruction, the decreation. It is the triumph of chaos, the return to what was before the Spirit of God installed order in this disorder; it is Sheol that prevails. In all we are here in the presence of the opposite of that which was the creative act of God.” (Ellul)

Mounce: “Jewish thought readily symbolized living beings as stars. Many expositors take the next step and concede that in Jewish thought the stars were held to be celestial spirits possessing conscious personalities. The usual passages cited in support of this position are Judges 5:20 ('From heaven fought the stars, from their courses they fought against Sisera') and Job 38:7 ('When the morning stars sang together'). In that both verses occur in poetic sections it would seem unwise to press upon them such a literal interpretation. Elsewhere Israel is sternly warned against worshiping stellar deities (Deut 4:19; Jer 7:18).”

Contrary to many of the opinions offered regarding the nature of the star in Rev. 9:1, Mounce feels, “It is more likely, that the star-angel is simply one of the many divine agents who throughout the book of Revelation are pictured as carrying out the will of God...He is probably the same angel who in 20:1 comes down out of heaven with the key of the abyss.”

Walvoord begins with a rather obvious observation when he states: “Because of the he in verse 2 and 'king' in verse 11, the star that fell to the earth was a person rather than a fragment of a star (cf. Isa. 14:12-17; Luke 10:18)...But from that point on, Walvoord represents a decided outlier in his opinion that “This star, probably representing Satan cast out of heaven of the beginning of the Great Tribulation (Rev. 12:9),...will be confined for a thousand years in the Abyss during the reign of Christ on earth (Rev. 20:1-3).” One seeming difficulty in his conflation of this verse with the imprisonment of Satan is the fact that it would mean that God actually gives the key to unlock the Abyss to Satan, rather than imprisoning him there. But there are ways of getting around that problem.

Payne's somewhat similar interpretation is expressed more tentatively: “The star must...have symbolized a personal being, and probably an angel, as in 1:20 – perhaps the elect angel who is to have the key of the abyss in 20:1, but more likely the fallen angelic ruler of demons, 'the angel of the abyss,' who is Abaddon, or Apollyon, namely Satan the destroyer, 9:11; cf. 12:9.” He also notes that 9:3 parallels the eighth plague of Egypt in Exodus 10:14.

Phillips expresses much the same thought more colorfully when he says that “the fallen star is Satan, who is now given authority to open the abyss and unleash the terrible beings incarcerated there. The imagination cannot picture what the earth will be like when the church is removed from the scene, when society, having completely corrupted itself, is handed over to the malignant attention of the most horrible fiends of hell. These wicked spirits, long mercifully chained by God, are now let loose upon the earth...”

In Beale's commentary of Revelation, he discusses this one verse for four pages. I will not attempt to capture all that he has to say on the subject, but just a few thoughts from the beginning of his interpretation.. “The main debate is whether this is a good or evil being. It could be either the archangel Uriel, was was chief 'over Tartarus,' or the archangel Saraqael [of the Book of Enoch). But I Enoch never calls those figures 'fallen stars,' Instead, this description is reserved exclusively for fallen angels under the confinement of the archangels. The star should rather be interpreted in the same way as the star in 8:10 because of the parallel wording ('a star fell from heaven'). We argued that the star in 8:10 was either an angel executing judgment or, more probably, in line with Isaiah 14, an angel representing sinful people, undergoing judgment along with those people. The portrayal of a heavenly being 'falling like a star from heaven' elsewhere also represents judgment of either Satan or his angels...Jesus uses virtually the identical expression to describe Satan's judgment in Luke 10:18..The expression in Rev. 9:1 may be another way of saying that 'Satan...was cast to the earth, and his angels with him were cast' (12:9; cf. 12:13).” The rest of his detailed exposition is spent defending that thesis.

As a final aside, several places in C.S. Lewis' writings he reiterates in different ways his understanding that, as he expressed himself in The Problem of Pain, "I willingly believe that the damned are, in one sense, successful, rebels to the end; that the gates of hell are locked on the inside." It is certainly an interesting perspective to consider.

"LIKEWISE" IN THE NEW TESTAMENT

 There are two reasons why it is almost impossible to account for all the NT passages in which the word “likewise” appears. In the first place, there are several Greek words which can be translated in this manner. Secondly, translators into English can render any of these words as “so,” “in like manner,” “similarly,” “in the same way,” etc. Therefore the passages listed below should not be taken as a necessarily exhaustive compilation. But in each case, we are confronted with a comparison of sorts, of which the Bible is full, where a spiritual truth is explained by its similarity to something more readily observable in the physical world. I have limited the passages below to those which can be taken as some sort of command.

Matthew 7:12 // Luke 6:31

Whole books have been written concerning the Golden Rule and all of its implications. Boice makes some good points when he says: “It is clear above all else that to express the Rule in a positive form is to make it extremely more difficult. In fact, it makes it impossible for normal human beings to keep. It always has been possible for men to keep the negative of this saying. In its negative form the Rule is a legal principle, and the law always has self as center...On the other hand, if a man is trying to keep the positive form of this saying, it becomes evident early that this is precisely what he cannot do. And he cannot do it precisely because he is taking himself as the starting point.”

Matthew 18:35

Snodgrass, in his detailed analysis of the parable of the unforgiving servant (Matt. 18:23-35), points out the following: “This parable, which appears only in Matthew, is a two-stage double indirect narrative parable with a plot development. It has a balanced three-part structure presenting the three scenes of the narrative followed by a nimshal (an explanation)...Regarding that explanation (v. 35), he states first that some scholars wish to separate verses 34-35 from the rest of the parable. However, his own opinion is expressed as follows:
“At the narrative level the master's rhetorical question (v. 33) requires an answer, and every reader wants to know what will happen to the servant. The nimshal in v. 35 only does the necessary job of explaining the referent of the parable...The attempts to reconstruct the parable without the closing verses seem to be clear attempts to distance Jesus from the idea of judgment...As the nimshal in 18:35 shows, the concern of the story is twofold: the necessity of mercy and forgiveness and the seriousness of any failure to show mercy and forgiveness..”

Matthew 24:32-44 // Mark 13:28-32 // Luke 21:31

Of these three parallel passages, Matthew uses “likewise” twice, in vv. 33 and 37; Mark only mentions the first of these occurrences; and Luke does not contain the word at all. The signs of Second Coming in Matthew are first compared to a natural event (the leafing out of a fig tree) and then with the suddenness of the flood in Noah's time. The conclusion after citing both these examples is stated in Matthew 24: “Therefore you also must be ready; for the Son of man is also coming at an hour you do not expect.”

Luke 10:37

This command comes at the end of the Parable of the Good Samaritan. Marshall summarizes this verse with the words: “with authority Jesus commands the lawyer to go away and begin to follow the Samaritan's example; the command in v. 28 [to love your neighbor as (you love) yourself] cannot be evaded.”

Luke 13:3-5

We have two parallel short historical happenings recounted by Jesus in which people died unexpectedly. Verse 3 ends up with the words you shall all perish in similar ways. “Prima facie this refers to a form of natural death, which will come unexpectedly; but in the context of judgment, which has been running through this part of the Lucan travel account, a broader sense of perishing must be envisaged.” (Fitzmyer)

Craddock adds: “Surely it is not coincidental that the tragedies affected both Galileans and Jerusalemites and that the one is an act of human evil, the other what we term natural evil. Jesus is as inclusive in his comments as the problem is universal. Why did this tragedy happen to these people?... And so they come to Jesus and want to know if violence and suffering are random or according to divine law. Jesus rejects such attempts at calculation, not only because they are futile but also because they deflect attention from the primary issue: the obligation of every person to live in penitence and trust before God, and that penitent trust is not to be linked to life's sorrows or life's joys.”

Luke 15:3-10

These twin stories of something valuable being found each end with a comparison between the joy of the person involved at that happening and the similar joy in heaven when a sinner is saved. Tilden notes that the second story “intensifies the picture of human helplessness and divine concern.”

Luke 17:10

In this story by Jesus, he points out that a servant expects no particular word of gratitude from his master for simply doing the job he is required to do. By analogy, as Tilden says, “Man's relation to God makes obedience to God a duty to be fulfilled and not an occasion for reward.”

Romans 6:11

Morris: “Paul goes on to Jesus' risen life...The resurrection marks the victory, the end of conflict with sin...His life is beyond the reach of death and every evil...This has consequences; In the same way points to the similarity...Believers must act in the same way...Christ's death and resurrection has altered their position, and they should live in accordance with the new reality.”

I Corinthians 7:2-4

Fee diagrams these teachings regarding the mutual care husband and wife should show for one another as follows:

    A. Each man should love his own wife (v. 2a)

                B. and each woman should should love her own husband (v. 2b)

    A. The husband should give the wife her due (v. 3a)

likewise

                B. the wife to her husband (v. 3b)

…...............

                B. The wife does not have control over her own body (4a)

    A. but her husband does (4b)

likewise

    A. the husband does not have control over his own body (4c)

                B. but the wife does (4d)

He states: “The way to correct an abuse of mutual relations [indicated by the double reference to 'likewise'] is not to make demands on the offending party only, but to emphasize the mutual responsibility of each.”

I Corinthians 14:9

“Paul illustrates the need for 'tongues' in public to be interpreted [with the two examples in v. 8]...Intelligible communication is vital, however highly the Corinthians may prize the gift of 'tongues.'” (Hillyer) Thus, the form of this 'likewise' saying resembles Christ's parables in first describing some easily observable phenomenon and following it with a spiritual analogue.

I Timothy 2:9

Demonstrating the interchangeablility of Greek words conveying the same meaning of comparison, Towner notes regarding this verse that “Gk. hosautos (3:8,11; 5:25; Titus 2:3,6 [is] equivalent to homoios in 1 Pet. 3:1,7, 5:5).”

Knight discusses in some detail the ambiguity regarding exactly of what the similarity in action between the women and men in the congregation is supposed to consist. It may indicate (a) that Paul has instructions for both groups, (b) both possess certain qualifications, or (c) that both men and women are to pray. Knight opts for the last meaning.

I Timothy 3:8

Guthrie points out: “The list of qualities specified [for deacons] is closely akin to the preceding [for elders] but there are significant variations.” According to Guthrie, these appear to be related to specific duties to be carried out by the deacons which might be accompanied by special temptations.

I Timothy 5:25

This verse relates to the ordination of those for the ministry. Ward notes that this is the reverse of the previous verse. “Just as hasty ordinations are to be avoided, so candidates for the ministry, even when unprepossessing, should not be rejected without allowing plenty of time to find out their worth. There is no reference here to judgment...Other good deeds which do not strike the eye may have been done in secret without fanfare...Sooner or later, Paul implied, the story would come out.”

Titus 2:3,6

“The connecting adverb 'in the same way' (hosautos …) relates this command to the preceding one and is typical of this type of parenesis [i.e.a formal rhetorical term for moral exhortation, advice, or counsel]. (Towner)

I Peter 3:1,7

Here, as in I Corinthians 7, we again have a tabulation of Household Codes in which the necessary relationships between different groups of people need to be spelled out for believers.

I Peter 5:5

Quanbeck points out that “humility is not natural to anyone; it must be put on like clothing. The quotation is from Pr. 3.34.”

THE NUMBER SEVENTEEN IN THE BIBLE

Numbers in the Bible are often used in the same manner as we would, as literal realities. But in addition, there can be occasions when they serve a symbolic or figurative purpose. And almost all of these latter examples involve numbers which can be derived mathematically from only three key numerals: three, four, and powers of ten. Therefore, we see many Scripture passages in which 3-1/2, seven, twelve, six, eight, twelve, forty, seventy, 666, or 144,000 appear with more than a mere literal meaning attached.

But in this post I would like to concentrate just on the number 17. It would seem to be an ideal number to represent completeness since it is the addition of two symbolically perfect numerals, seven and ten.

Genesis 

In the flood narrative of Genesis 7-8, God's action in 7:11 in initiating the flooding of the earth is matched with the subsidence of the water in 8:4. Interestingly, both events take place on the 17^th days of their respective months.

In Hamilton's commentary on this book, he says the following regarding Genesis 47:28, “Genesis is as silent on Jacob's last seventeen years as it was on Joseph's first seventeen years (37:2). The reference to seventeen years advances the Joseph narrative into a more distant time frame. The famine is over by now. Joseph is even further consolidated in his position of authority, and the text is now ready to describe Jacob's last days.”

It seems too much of a coincidence that these two key missing time periods happen to be exactly the same in length. More likely is that the actual expired periods were both rounded off in the text somewhat so that the time frames could symbolically stand for a “sufficient” or “perfect” amount of time to accomplish God's plan.

Historical Books

This ubiquitous number also pops up in this portion of the Old Testament as part of the descriptions of key kings over Judah and Israel, especially in the introductions to the reigns of each one. Thus, we have the following verses:

I Kings 14:21 // II Chronicles 12:13 These parallel passages state that Rehoboam reigned for seventeen years. But the first thing to note is that the Greek Septuagint version reduced that time period to only twelve years. And according to W.F. Albright, that time period only makes sense if it is truncated even further.

I Kings 22:51 Ahaziah reigned over Israel starting in the seventeenth year of King Jehoshaphat of Judah.

II Kings 13:1 Jehoahaz reigned over Israel for seventeen years according to this verse. However, Cogan and Tadmor state: “The synchronisms with Joash of Judah in vv. 1 and 10 show that Jehoahaz reigned only fourteen years.”

II Kings 16:1 In the seventeenth year of Pekah, Ahaz began his reign over Judah. But again, as Waite says, “His age at the time of accession and the length of his reign (2 Ki. xvi. 2; 2 Ch. xxvii. 1) both give rise to chronological problems.”

The generally conservative commentator Scot McKnight concludes regarding the above: “The 'histories' of 1-2 Kings and 1-2 Chronicles are more fundamentally shaped by theological and political concerns ['than chronological synchronomy of two sets of kings, and historical flow'].”

Thus, we can see that in several cases, the historical data has been changed somewhat in order to insert the symbolic “seventeen” into the text, as an indication that it is God, and God alone, who determines the fate of rulers. Of course another way in which that goal can be accomplished is to choose between the various dating formulas [i.e. age of the ruler when coming to rule, number of years served as king, or by reference to the Northern or Southern Kingdom rulers at the time] so that the number 17 arises.

Jeremiah 32:9 “The prophet buys a plot of land for seventeen shekels. Jeremiah's purchase illustrates his confidence in the future of Judah.” (Biddle) The number seventeen here can also be figuratively the prophet's way of assuring the people of his perfect or complete assurance from God on that point.

John's Gospel John is a prime example of an author who utilizes 17 in a figurative manner. In his Gospel, there are 17 quotations having an introductory formula; exactly 17 occurrences in the text of the words “sign(s)” and “see/believe” (blepein) and the phrases “eternal life/life eternal” and “Simon Peter.” In addition, there are 17 references in the Gospel to the “hour / time coming” (erchomai). It is also stated 17 times in the Gospel that God “sent” Jesus. Taken together, these references practically define the major themes of the book. To these examples can perhaps be added, at least by one count, the 68 (i.e., 4x17) appearances of the designation “the Jews” in the Gospel, especially since the idea of Jesus replacing the Jewish institutions is one of the more pervasive themes of the book.

Romans 8 But perhaps the most subtle appearance of “17” in the Bible appears in this chapter. Commentators note the extremely high concentration of reference to pneuma (“spirit”) here, twenty times by count, compared to the chapters that precede and follow it..

At this point, it is necessary to back up and explain that Bible manuscripts can be divided into two basic types: uncials written in capital letters and produced in the 4th-8th centuries AD and minuscules (from the 9^th Century on) which were written in lower-case letters, often connected to one another. Thus, in neither case was it possible to tell whether a word was meant to be capitalized or not.

This could pose a major problem in trying to distinguish between words such as Lord and lord, Spirit and spirit, and God and god. Sometimes the context is enough to distinguish which was intended by the author. But there is a reasonable consensus among English translations that the lower-case designation 'spirit' is only appropriate to the word's occurrence in vv. 15a-b and 16. That leaves exactly 17 times in the chapter that the Holy Spirit appears.

Thus, we might conclude that whereas the places in the Old Testament mentioning “17” refer to actions of God the Father, John's Gospel uses the number 17 mainly in relation to Christ while Romans 8 does the same thing regarding the Holy Spirit.

ROMANS 8 TEXTUAL PROBLEMS

Fitzmyer considers this chapter to form “a certain peak in Paul's whole discussion, because it seeks to bring out the reality of the new aeon and of the new life that human beings can now lead in union with Christ and through his Spirit. It also stresses how God's love is poured out on his human creatures. Divine love is seen as the counterpart of divine uprightness.”

“Until now Paul has used pneuma five times only and some of these do not refer to the Holy Spirit. But in this chapter the term occurs 20 times, the most in any one chapter in the New Testament.” (Morris)

1 Fitzmyer notes regarding this verse that a number of Greek manuscripts, as well as the Latin Vulgate, add 'who walk not according to the flesh.' But that is not the reading in the best MSS...and is clearly derived from 8:4. Still other MSS...add the same phrase, but also alla kata pneuma, 'but according to the Spirit.'”

Metzger agrees: “The shorter text, which makes the more general statement without the qualification that is appropriate enough at ver. 4, is strongly supported by early representatives of both the Alexandrian and the Western types of text...”

Murray's opinion is that “the external evidence is such that we cannot assume the genuineness of this addition in whole or in part. It is most likely that it was inserted from the end of vs. 4 in the course of transcription. In the later case there is no textual question.”

2 “Me” = “you” or “us” in other manuscripts. Fitzmyer weighs the evidence on each side, but concludes, “It is not easy to say which fits the context better...In any case, Paul clearly means the justified Christian.” Murray similarly states, “The sense is not affected.” And adding to this consensus is Morris: “Not much depends on the point because either way Paul clearly means the term to apply to any believer.”

NRSV: Here the Greek word you is singular in number; other ancient authorities read me or us.”

3 The Greek reads literally “For sin.” But NIV has “as a sin offering,” echoing the Septuagint's use of the phrase applied to sacrifices for sin.

11a Morris explains, “The Spirit is not usually linked with resurrection, but here he seems to be. It is not clear whether Paul is saying that the Spirit is to be the agent in the raising us or the guarantee that we will be raised. Both are true, and it does not seem to matter greatly which way we resolve the textual problem.” He adds: “There seems no compelling reason for choosing either [of the two textual possibilities].”

Comfort agrees with Morris' assessment: “Either reading could be original. The first indicates agency (God will resurrect believers through the indwelling Spirit); the second indicates cause (God will resurrect believers because they have the Spirit).”

11b NRSV “Other ancient authorities read the Christ or Christ Jesus or Jesus Christ” for the second mention of him in the verse.

12 The sentence here breaks off in the middle and implies that we are debtors to the Spirit. It starts out with a strong expression which in the Greek is literally “wherefore therefore.” It is a deduction from the theological truths that preceded in order to give an application in living.

13 “Paul uses soma, 'body,' as the synonym for sarx, 'flesh,' which some MSS even introduce as a correction...” (Fitzmyer)

15-16 The Greek word for spirit appears four times in these verses. Since there was no capitalization in the original Greek to distinguish spirit from Spirit, this causes some uncertainty in how to translate and understand the text. Thus, in contrast to the obvious references to the Holy Spirit in vv. 13-14, the two occurrences in v. 15 and the second appearance in v. 16 more likely have the meaning of a disposition or frame of mind (8:15) and a component of man's make-up (8:16).

21 Fitzmyer explains that there are two different readings in the existing manuscripts: either hoti ('that') or dioti ('because'). He opts for the first since, “The reading dioti...probably developed by dittography (elpidi hoti becoming elpidi dioti). This verse explains the hope.” Note: dittography is an accidental error made by a scribe in which he repeated a word or some letters in the text, di in this particular case.

Murray points out, “Notable editors follow the latter reading [i.e. dioti].” By contrast, Morris feels that hoti is to be preferred.

23 NEB note “Some witnesses [i.e. manuscripts] omit 'make us his sons and'.” “The textual variants in this verse do not materially change the sense.” (Murray) Morris admits that “there is textual uncertainty” but concludes that “Paul is clearly emphasizing the truth that none less than believers join in the groaning.”

“Several witnesses, chiefly Western...omit huiothesian [ i.e. 'adoption'], a word which copyists doubtless found to be both clumsy in the context and dispensable, as well as seeming to contradict ver. 15.” (Metzger)

24a NEB note: Some witnesses read “why should a man hope...” Fitzmyer comments: “In the long run the sense is little affected.” 24b NRSV note “Other ancient authorities read 'Who awaits' in place of 'who hopes.'” Again, as Murray points out, “The sense is not materially affected.”

25 JB note: alternative reading in the Latin Vulgate “The Spirit bears witness to our spirit.”

26 NRSV note: Other ancient authorities add for us after intercedes.Fitzmyer expresses the opinion that “It may be a copyist's added phrase.” Comfort aggrees with that view in that “for us” is only supported by one 7^th cent. manuscript.

28 RSV note: “Other ancient authorities read in everything he works for good, or everything works for good.” Fitzmyer feels, “Any one of them would suit the context.” Comfort adds, “It is God who turns everything to good; it is not just that everything works out for the good.”

Morris says, “A few MSS read 'God works all things...' This gives a excellent sense and is accepted by RSV. But it is hard to understand why it is read by so few MSS if it is correct and involves us in a problem with the Greek construction.” To explain this issue, he notes that the Greek of this variation really indicates that God works together with all things, and states, “But God is sovereign, not a partner, working 'with' the things he has made.”

31 “Most MS read hos ge (which is emphatic, 'he who' or 'the same one who,' even with a causal nuance, 'seeing that he')...but MSS D, F, and G read hos oude tou idiou huiou, 'who did not spare even his own Son.'” (Fitzmyer)

34a Both Murray and Comfort point out that the manuscript evidence is pretty much divided here over the issue of whether the verse should read “Christ Jesus” or just “Christ” alone.

34b Fitzmyer rejects the addition of the words “from the dead,” saying “but that is almost certainly a copyist's explanatory addition.” The shorter reading is found in the better and older manuscripts.

35 Fitzmyer similarly rejects the reading '(the love) of God that is in Christ Jesus' as “almost certainly a copyist's harmonization with v 39...” Comfort finds confirmation in that view by taking into account the amount of space allotted to a missing text in two early manuscripts.

38 “Paul has ten items in his list. The manuscripts vary a little, but he seems to arrange them in four pairs, along with two single items.” (Morris)

Morris opts for the listing in which the last items mentioned are: “things present,” “things to come,” and “powers” in that order. The reason for that judgment is given as “the diversity of the [manuscript] evidence in its favor. It is also the more difficult reading.” That last reason may sound counterintuitive, but it makes actually good sense since it is highly unlikely for a scribe to purposely change a text to make it less understandable to the reader, while the reverse change is much more likely to take place.

ROMANS 13:11-14

I have previously analyzed the literary structure of Romans 12-13 as shown in Figure 1, in which 13:11-14 is parallel in thought to the introduction to chapter 12

                                     Figure 1: Organization of Romans 12-13

A. Be transformed (12:1-2)

B. Love within the body (12:3-13)

C. Attitude toward enemies (12:14-21)

                                    C'. Attitude toward authorities (13:1-7)

B'. Love for neighbor (13:8-10)

A'. Put on Christ (13:11-14)

We can thus view A' as an expansion of A in that it describes such a transformation in more detail in terms of a moving from the spiritual darkness into God's light. This movement is expressed over and over again in 13:11-14, as diagrammed below:

                                         Figure 2: Organization of Romans 13:11-14

wake from sleep (11)

        night is almost gone (12a)

day is near (12b)

        works of darkness (12c)

put on the armor of light (12d)

live as in the day (13a)

        not as in the night (13b)

Put on Christ (14a)

        make no provision for the flesh (14)

Below are some additional comments from scholars regarding these four verses:

Romans 13:11

“The return of Christ makes it urgent to wake to holy and honorable living (I Thess 5:1-11; Eph 5.8-18).” (Elliott)

As to what time period is being referred to, the note in the Jerusalem Bible explains, “The thought is a fundamental one in Paul's moral teaching. The 'time' (kairos) is apparently the eschatological era, called in the Bible the 'latter days', introduced by Christ's death and resurrection and coextensive with the age of the Church on earth, the age of salvation, 2 Co 6:2+. It is opposed to the era that preceded it by a difference not so much of time as of nature. The Christian, henceforward a 'child of the day' emancipated from the wicked world, Ga 1:4 and from the empire of darkness, belongs to the kingdom of God and of his Son, Col 1:13; he is already a citizen of heaven, Ph 3:20. This entirely new status dominates the whole moral outlook, cf. 6:3f.”

Romans 13:12

Morris: “Paul does not explain what the night is, but clearly he is referring to this present life as in some sense lived in darkness. But the consummation of which he has just spoken indicates that the night will not last forever; indeed, in view of what Christ has done in bringing light and salvation it is far advanced. 'The day has drawn near' does not mean that the parousia [i.e. second coming] is imminent but that after Christ all history 'must be of the nature of an epilogue' (Cranfield).”

Romans 13:13

And to drill into the organization of Figure 2 a little further, note that there are exactly six examples of sinful behavior listed in v. 13b. This is significant because in biblical symbology that number signifies something incomplete since it is one shy of the “perfect” number seven (as in the number of the beast as a trinity of imperfection, 666).

Note that these six sinful behaviors are further broken down into three pairs of similar activities:

    a. orgies and drunkenness

    b. sexual immorality and debauchery

    c. dissension and jealousy

Here are some selections from Barclay's definition of these six sins:

Revelry (komos) – “This is an interesting word. Originally a komos was the band of friends who accompanied a victor home from the games, singing his praises and celebrating his triumph as they went. Later it came to mean a noisy band of revellers who swept their way through the city streets at night...It describes the kind of revelry which lowers a man's self and is a disturbance and nuisance to others.”

Drunkenness (methe) – “Especially to the Greeks, drunkenness was a particularly disgraceful thing...This was a vice which not only a Christian but any respectable heathen would also have condemned.” And my personal experiences in college indicate that these first two activities usually go hand in hand.

Immorality (koite) – “The word has in it the meaning of the desire for the forbidden bed. This was the typical heathen sin. It is true to say that chastity was unknown; it is almost true today that it had not begun to be thought of as a virtue. The word brings to mind the man who sets no value on fidelity, and who takes his pleasure when and where he will.”

Shamelessness (aselgeia) – “Aselgeia is one of the ugliest words in the Greek language. It does not describe only immorality; it describes the man who is lost to shame. Most people seek to conceal their evil deeds, and try to sin in secret; but the man in whose heart there is aselgeia is long past that. He does not care who sees him.”

Contention (eris) – “Eris is the spirit that is born of unbridled and unholy competition. It comes from the desire for place and power and prestige, from the hatred of being surpassed, from the inability and unwillingness to take the second place.”

Romans 13:14

As often occurs in New Testament documents, there is some disagreement between different manuscripts regarding the exact wording when referring to the names of God or Christ. In this case, the preferred reading, according to Metzger and others, is that found in the earliest text, “Jesus Christ our Lord.” Other variations in some later manuscripts include “Lord Jesus” and “Christ Jesus.” Whichever option one chooses does not really change the meaning of the verse at all.

Elliott states that the reference to putting on Christ was “an early Christian metaphor for baptism (Gal 3.27).” And Knox adds, “To put on the Lord Jesus Christ is to enter fully into the new order of existence which God has created through Christ...”