WAS ZEPHANIAH OF AFRICAN DESCENT?

This is one of those controversial issues in the Bible where the more one reads on the subject, the more 

confused one becomes. That is why it is so common among Christians I have known over the years to

 fix on one particular commentator and swear by everything that author, preacher or media personality

 says. The advantage of that approach to the Bible is that you never are called upon to think for yourself

 by having that one particular view questioned by other commentators. That way you can always be

 definite in your opinions even if those opinions happen to be definitely mistaken.

Pro

One of the most intriguing issues in this book is the identity of the author since although his name is 

obviously Hebrew (meaning “Yahweh has protected, or hidden”) with three other personages in the 

Bible by the same name (see II Kings 25:18; I Chronicles 6:36; and Zechariah 6:10-14), his father is 

called Cushi, indicating that he comes from Cush, almost always in the Bible referring to Ethiopia.

So although there are other characters in the Bible who come from Africa (such as Moses' wife, the 

Queen of Sheba, and the Ethiopian eunuch converted by Philip), Zephaniah may possibly be the only 

author of Scripture with that distinction.

Con

Working against that possibility is the fact that Zephaniah's heritage goes back three more generations 

(a highly unusual occurrence in the Bible) and all of those names are squarely Hebrew, and one of 

them, Hezekiah, may even refer to the famous king of Judah. Watts, for example, says, “The 

superscription goes to unusual lengths in giving the prophet's ancestry, which is traced back to 

Hezekiah, the great Judean king.”

After consulting all of the pertinent resource books in my home library, I compiled the following 

citations from fairly recent Bible commentaries. .

Zephaniah 1:1

Why are so many generations of descendants given? Who was the Hezekiah mentioned in this verse?

These two closely related questions are best handled together. Childs appears to be one of the few 

scholars who doesn't feel it is necessary to even discuss these questions. He says, “The unusually 

lengthy genealogy of the superscription has evoked some interest, but the message of the book seems 

unaffected regardless of the identification of Hezekiah.”

Most other commentators fall into one of two camps, those who feel that Zephaniah was descended to 

royalty and those who are negative or undecided. In the former camp we have the following:

Payne: “Zephaniah 1:1 introduces the prophet through a genealogy that goes back four generations. 

This  is the longest for any of the writing prophets for it identifies Zephaniah's great-great grandfather 

as the  famous King Hezekiah...who reigned 726-697; and this may, in turn help account for the 

prophet's insight into the royal family (1:9) and into the contemporaneous international situation (as in 

2:8). For that reason, it has even been proposed without proof by some that those three names were 

purposely added later by an editor to remove any suggestion of the prophet's African lineage.

Hicks states that “Zephaniah's intimate knowledge of Jerusalem and its court circles, his failure to 

denounce the king personally, and the absence of any concern with the poor of the land support the 

inference that he was of royal descent.”

Hannah: “Most prophets are traced only to their fathers. Zephaniah's careful delineation of his 

pedigree which included Hezekiah has led many scholars to assume Zephaniah's royalty...”

“The use of four generations for a prophet is unprecedented in Hebrew tradition and may indicate that 

Zephaniah himself was of royal lineage...” (Redditt)

Chisholm states that “there must be some reason for the more extensive genealogy that appears in 

Zephaniah's case. The best explanation for this is that Zephaniah was a descendant of the famous king

 Hezekiah.”

Then there are those who are not quite convinced that the prophet was related at all to King Hezekiah:

“The connection to 'Cushi' in the genealogy raises the intriguing possibility of an African ancestry for 

the prophet, which in turn may explain the longer introduction for the purpose of stressing legitimacy.” 

(Premnath) In plain words, that means that a later editor probably added the genealogy in v. 1 to the 

text..

Bullock: “C.F. Keil...avoids the problem that he [i.e. Hezekiah] is not directly called 'king' by taking 

'king of Judah' at the end of the verse, obviously applied to Josiah, to apply also to Hezekiah...However

 appealing the identification of Hizkiyyah with king Hezekiah, it cannot be substantiated. Yet being the 

last named in the list, we surmise that he was a very important man.”

Reid: His genealogy is much longer than the usual prophetic pedigree...Suggested reasons for this are 

(a) to overcome opposition to him because of his African father, 'Cushi' meaning 'Ethiopian', though 

this does not tally with Dt. 23. (b) that 'he probably belonged to a family of some importance' 

(Ellison).”

Redditt explains:”The name 'Cushi'...means 'Ethiopian.' A reader might wonder if such a person were 

indeed an authentic spokesperson for Judah's God, and so, one might presume a redactor added the 

Yahweistic pedigree that follows...Thus, the superscription seeks to stamp the imprimatur of Yahweh 

on the collection of sayings of the prophet.”

Bridger: “We're told that Zephaniah's father is a man called Cushi (1). This is an Egyptian name, and 

some have suggested that he may have been of Ethiopian negro origin and a slave or civil servant in the

 royal household. We can't be sure. More significant perhaps is the mention of a Hezekiah as the great,

 great grandfather of Zephaniah. Is this King Hezekiah the earlier reforming king of Judah? Again we 

can't be sure. But why does the ancestry stop once Hezekiah is mentioned? Could it be to relate 

Zephaniah to the royal house? This certainly fits in to what we find Zephaniah saying and knowing.”

It has been suggested that the extended Jewish genealogy at the start of the book was purposely given 

to counter any suggestion that Zephaniah was in fact of Ethiopian lineage. (LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush)

“The superscription of Zephaniiah is unique in that the prophet's lineage is traced back through four 

generations. This may indicate that Zephaniah's great, great grandfather was the famous King Hezekiah.

 However, if the Hezekiah of the superscription had been the king, that probably would have been 

made clear. Kapelrud points out that Hezekiah was a common name in Judah (1 Chr 3:23; Ezra 2:16;

 Neh 7:21), so this Hezekiah could have been someone other than the king. There were only two 

generations between Hezekiah and Josiah according to 1 Kgs 21-22 (Manasseh and Amon) not three as

Zephaniah's superscription would have it if Hezekiah were the king. Also, Amariah is not attested as 

one of Hezekiah's sons.” (R.L. Smith)

Zephaniah 2:12

Was “Cushite” in the original text and, if so, to what country does it refer?

The second appearance is in the “Oracles to the Nations” section where it is notable in that (a) the 

oracle is unusually truncated, (b) “Cushites” appears in place of the expected “Cush,” and (c) it is not 

clear why Cush is mentioned instead of the expected powerful nation of Egypt. (Berlin) Dorsey labels 

this verse textually suspect and “seemingly intrusive.” Assuming the verse is authentic, the nation 

actually referred to by this designation could be either Egypt, Ethiopia, Midian, tribes of the Arabian

 peninsula, or Assyria. (See Baker and Boda for discussion of these options). If the last country is in 

mind, then 2:12 should be included with 2:13-15, thus disrupting the entire chiastic structure...Midian 

or the tribes of Arabia are equally poor options in light of the geographical scheme for the Oracles 

described earlier. Some scholars feel that Egypt is being referred to in this verse since it sometimes 

appears in the Hebrew Bible in close conjunction with Cush although Berlin notes that Cush never 

stands in place of Egypt. The best option appears to be a literal rendering of Cush as Ethiopia. The last 

appearance is at 3:10 (“rivers of Cush”) where it may or may not refer to one of the four rivers of Eden.

Remarking on 2:12, Reid says, “Cushites may be reference to Egypt whose 25^th dynasty, 712-663

 B.C., had been Cushite. Since the other nations mentioned are on the west, east and north points of the 

compass, it seems that Cush was chosen as representing the south.”

It is also worth noting in the fact that in the oracles to the nations in Zephaniah 2:4-15, the prophecy 

against Cush is much briefer (only one very short verse) than those against Philistia (4 vv.), Moab and 

Ammon (4 vv.), and Assyria (3vv.).

Zephaniah 3:9-10

Beale and Gladd list Zephaniah 3:9-10 as one of twelve Old Testament passages, eight of which are 

found in Isaiah, predicting what has been been labeled as the “eschatological pilgrimage of the 

Gentiles.”

“Obadiah, Joel, Amos, and Isaiah had all spoken of this day [i.e. Day of the Lord], but Zephaniah alone

 emphasized more strenuously than them all the universality of its judgment while also surprisingly 

predicting the conversion of the nations as one of its fruits [see 3:9].” (Kaiser)

Childs notes that in Zephaniah, “the nations have been assigned a new role in the promise of God 

which breaks out of their traditional role as mere recipients of divine judgment. 2.11 first introduces a 

new note by describing the conversion of the nations, but in 3.9f. the new period of promised salvation

actually begins with the conversion of the nations which precedes the promise to Israel...The 

universalism of the threatened judgment is closely paralleled by a universal redemption.”

Literary Considerations

One way in which to present the overall contents of a biblical book as well as to show how it is organized in a symmetrical manner. Figure 1 summarizes by analysis of Zephaniah (discussed in more detail in my post “Zephaniah: Introduction to the Literary Structure”).

Figure 1: The Structure of the Book of Zephaniah

I. The Day of the Lord: Judgment (1:1-18)

A. Universal Events (1:2-3)

B. Against Judah (1:4-13)

A'. Universal Events (1:14-18)

II. Call to Repentance (2:1-4)

III. Oracle to the Nations (2:5-15)

A. Against Philistia (2:5-7)

B. Against Moab and Ammon (2:8-10)

C. Universal Worship of Yahweh (2:11)                                                                                            B'. Against Cush (2:12)

A'. Against Assyria (2:13-15)

II'. Call to Repentance (3:1-7)

I'. The Day of the Lord: Salvation (3:8-20)

                    A. Universal Events (3:8-10)

                                    B. Regarding Judah (3:11-18)

                    A'. Universal Events (3:19-20)

Thus the three occurrences of “Cush” happen to appear at the beginnings of Sections I (1:1) and I' 

(3:10), as well as the almost exact center (2:12). How Cush relates to the overall theme of the book, The

 Day of the Lord, is hard to fathom. However, in retrospect, it appears that perhaps the prophet 

highlighted this term as a purposeful play on his father’s name, contra those who feel that Zephaniah 

wished to distance himself from Ethiopian connections.

In any case, it seems likely that all three symmetrically disposed references to Cush are a purposeful 

touch designed by the author and are all part of the original text (contra Dorsey's opinion regarding 

2:12).

.

ROMANS 12:9-21

There is a often a great deal of subjectivity regarding the way to divide up a given passage of Scripture into individual paragraphs. Below is a listing of a few such suggestions made by scholars and found in English translations:

NRSV, Davison and Martin, JB, NIV, RSV     9-13                     14-21

NEB, Morris                                                     9-10     11-16                          17-21

TEV                                                                  9-13                     14-16          17-21

Living Bible                                                     9-11         12-13   14-16           17-18      19-21

And then there are several other sources who treat verses 9-21 as a unity without attempting to further break that passage down into smaller units. The difficulty in pinning down the organization exactly as a table of contents probably arises from the way these verses are interrelated in a roughly symmetrical manner so that there is no strong demarcation point between each theme to the next. This is shown in Figure 1 below in which six different themes appear and then re-appear at regular intervals afterward, with a center point somewhere around verses 15-18 where there is a two-fold emphasis on the word “all.” Thus, we can say with some certainty that Paul's main point in this whole passage is that Christians should so behave that they can interact effectively with both other believers and unbelievers alike. Only in that manner can the Gospel spread throughout the world in the way it was intended.

                                                     Figure 1: Structure of Romans 12:9-12

I. Do's and don'ts (9-18)

        A. “Let love be genuine” (9a)

                B. “hate what is evil, hold fast to what is good” (9b)

                        C. “one another” (2x) (10)

                                D. “Lord” (11)

                                        E. Bless your enemies (14)

                                                F. Sympathize with all (15)

                        C''. “one another” (16)

                                        E'. Do not repay evil with evil (17a)

                                                F'. Live peacefully with “all” (2x) (17b-18)

I'. Do's and don'ts (19-21)

        A'. “Beloved” (19a)

                                        E. God will repay (19b)

                                D'. “Lord” (19c)

                                        E''. treat your enemies with kindness (20)

                B'. “Do not be overcome by evil, but overcome evil with good” (21)

You can see from the above that vv. 9b and 21 act as an inclusion marking the limits of this overall section. Additionally, as Elliott notes, the thought in both Romans 12:17 and 21 can be traced back to Jesus' teachings in Matthew 5, thus approximately closing out both halves of the above passage.

By contrast, the second half of this arrangement (verses 19-21) is heavy in allusions to the Old Testament. See Deuteronomy 32:35 for the wrath of God in Romans 12:19 as well as Proverbs 25:21-22 for Romans 12:21-22.

It has been pointed out by several scholars that verses 9-10 actually contain three of the four different Gtreek words meaning “love.” If you would like to learn more concerning the different nuances between these words, a valuable resource is C.S. Lewis' The Four Loves.

This overall passage is mainly characterized by the catalog of things that Christians are to do as well as behaviors and attitudes to avoid. It is a little difficult to count how many of each type of command are present. However, it is possible to see exactly 21 positive comments and 7 negative ones. If so, then that is entirely appropriate considering that throughout the Old and New Testaments the number seven (or its exact multiples) symbolically stands for completion or perfection. In other words, Paul is presenting an exhaustive, or typical, list of behaviors to both emulate and avoid in order to guide the believers' thought patterns and subsequent resulting actions.

As a roughly chiastic (i.e. mirror-image) structure, Figure 1 leads us to the all-important passage(s) at the middle of the organization. This central teaching can be approximately located around sections F and F' which jointly instruct us to so conduct ourselves among those around us so that whether they are believers or not, we can live in peace with “all” (a word notably repeated in 17b-18) and perhaps win them over through our godly example of behavior. The concomitant goal of such a Christian life is that the Church will not be put to shame by our negative witness in the world.

It is sad to see how in many cases today, a liberal church group will completely lose its uniquely Christian prophetic witness to the world in its attempts to “fit in”with society and not make any waves. At the same time, the fundamentalist wing of the church often has no opportunity to witness to the world in the first place since it likes to spend its time huddled together in its small and isolated like-minded enclaves which devote an inordinate amount of time and effort to bad-mouthing everyone outside who doesn't agree with them 100%.

Below are some sample comments from the scholarly literature attempting to summarize the overall message of Romans 12:9-21:

Barclay takes a basically political interpretation of these verses when he says,“Paul's main view of the state was that in his day, as he saw things, the Roman Empire was the divinely ordained instrument to save the world from chaos...Paul saw in the state an instrument in the hand of God; the state preserved the world from chaos; those who administered the state were playing their part in that great task. Whether they knew it or not they were doing God's work, and it was the Christian's duty to help and not to hinder.”

Kasemann derives a more personal application out of this passage: “Verse 21 takes up again the heading in v. 17a and rounds off the section. Only love overcomes evil by the doing of good. This raises again the question whether love is not the guiding idea of the verses. It this is denied, one must grant that in any case it determines both the beginning and the end and repeatedly comes into view...When a person burns in the Spirit and simultaneously associates with the lowly, this involves eschatological conduct and the other requirements [in this passage] are also to be seen against this background...The individual is left unusual room to maneuver within the framework of his abilities and weaknesses. A church order can develop out of all this, as in the Pastorals. But it is not yet present here.”

Morris says of v. 9, “At this point Paul moves from the charismatic gifts, functions exercised by individuals, to virtues he expects to see in all believers. Characteristically he begins with love.” And when he comes to verses17-21 at the end of the passage, he states, “this should not be regarded as a hard-and-fast division. Some of what we saw in the previous section applies to the way Christians should behave towards outsiders and some in this section to their treatment of fellow believers.” His comments on vv. 9-21 conclude by saying, “We should be clear that Paul is not laying down some useful ethical precepts for the edification of the general public. He has spent a lot of time in this letter on the subject of justification by faith, and it is the justified person of whom he continues to write.”

 

TENSIONS IN BIBLICAL THEOLOGY

There is actually a fairly fine line between the concepts of a tension and a contradiction so that a critic can often cite two passages in Scripture and point out that they appear to express exactly opposite or incompatible ideas. At the same time, one who is committed to the truth of the Bible will delve into the matter a little deeper in order to see if both concepts can be held simultaneously without giving up any intellectual integrity. A former pastor once compared it to stretching a rubber band between your two hands. It forms a taut support as long as you don't let go of it with one hand. If you do, all the tension is gone and you are left with a limp rubber band in the other hand.

Generally speaking, there are several ways in which this desirable tension can be maintained. For example, the contexts of the two passages might represent entirely different situations or even dispensations. Then there is the possibility that the perspectives differ between the conflicting teachings (i.e. divine vs. human). Or each individual passage might only give half of the story, and both are needed to get the complete message. Here is how those tensions play out concerning certain points of theology.

Faith and Works

The relationship between these two seemingly diametrically opposed concepts related to the question of salvation has been worked to death over the centuries by many theologians, and so I won't bore you with rehearsing all the ins and outs of that subject. One simple-minded way of resolving this issue is to say that your works save you only if they are considered as evidence of a prior faith. But at the same time, without works, there is the real question as to whether you in fact have that faith. However, those who think they can earn their way to heaven through their works alone are also sadly mistaken.

There are similar discussions regarding whether our salvation is solely due to God's grace or to our faith. The best approach there appears to be treatment of God's grace being first extended to all and leaving it up to human beings to respond or not respond in faith. Some Calvinists would deny that there is any free will for man and in addition quote Bible passages that can be made to say that even faith itself is not up to us but given only to certain pre-chosen persons. To me, that is a prime example of letting go of the rubber band with one hand.

Steps of Salvation

I was raised in the Restoration tradition which came up with the simple mnemonic preaching device of holding up one hand and showing how each of the five fingers represented one of the steps necessary for salvation. That was their approach, and in my mind a good one, to help their audience keep in mind all of the New Testament passages dealing with this subject. These various passages, taken individually as if they were in a vacuum, might easily lead one to think that all was needed was either faith, repentance, confession of faith in front of others, baptism, or persistence in belief. Taking your pick of which one or ones you happen to feel are sufficient (as do most Christian denominations) and trying to explain away the others as not necessary, is again a case of letting go one end of the rubber band.

God's Omniscience and Human Actions

After Jacob dies in Egypt, Joseph's brothers are afraid that he will then seek revenge on them for selling him into slavery. But Joseph replies, “Even though you intended to do harm to me, God intended it for good, in order to preserve a numerous people, as he is doing today. So have no fear.” Here we see that Joseph is able to overlook the sin against him because he can see events from God's viewpoint rather than from his own limited perspective. God was able to turn man's evil intent around and use it instead as a means of saving the Jewish people.

A close parallel to this type of tension is seen in the NT account of Christ's Passion in which He foretells Judas' betrayal with the words: “For the Son of Man is going as it has been determined, but woe to that one by whom he is betrayed.” (Mark 14:21; Luke 22:22) Thus, God is again seen to utilize an evil act to accomplish His purposes. But in addition, we see here that Judas was no mere puppet to carry out God's will; he was held fully responsible for his own actions.

 

I TIMOTHY 6:1-16

My previous analysis of I Timothy (see the post titled “I and II Timothy: Introduction to the Literary Structure”) indicated the symmetrical arrangement for 6:1-19 shown below:

A. Servants (6:1-2a)

B. False teachers (6:2b-10)

B'. True teachers (6:11-16)

A'. The Rich (6:17-19)

Since I have already posted my comments on verses 17-19, I would like to now share some insights into vv. 1-16 found in the scholarly literature on that subject, leaning heavily on Dictionary of Biblical Imagery.

Advice to Servants (vv. 1-2a)

verse 1: Hendricksen states, “ With the entrance of the Christian religion into the fabric of Roman society, difficult problems arose...his way toward a solution commends itself by reason of its evident wisdom. It avoids extremes which would have resulted in much harm both to the slave and to his master, and it would have reflected dishonor upon the cause of the Christian religion.”

verse 2: “Even believing slaves and masters are viewed as 'brethren' (1 Tim 6:2; also see Philemon). Yet brotherly equality is never used as an excuse not to serve one another.” (DBI)

Warnings Against False Teachers (vv. 2b-10)

verses 3-6: Mitchell calls vv. 3-5 “a portrait of the unsound teacher, with many resonances to 1:3-11” and explains, “The catchword gain [see vv. 5,6] leads to a favorite philosophical and biblical (Job 1.21; Eccl. 5.15) commonplace about the false security of riches (taken up again in 6.17-19).”

verses 7-8: “We can take only the 'self' [out of the world] (cf. Job 1:21; Luke 12:20)...We shall face our Maker alone, with no baggage. Everything will depend on whether we are in Christ...The identity of the we [in v. 8] makes all the difference...If we are people of godliness (v. 6) we are not secularists, tied down to our own age. Our eyes are on the distant horizon, for we are pilgrims with a heavenly destiny as well as witnesses to our own times.” (Ward)

verse 9: “ Strong words are used in the description of those whose desires are set upon the acquistion of wealth. The words apply to all whose aims are controlled by the passion to increase material possessions in themselves. The apostle is not so much thinking of those who are already rich, as of those ever grasping to become so.” (Guthrie)

verse 10: “Wandering is...used to picture deviation from faith (1 Tim 6:10), from light (John 8:12), from the Lord (1 Sam 12:20-21; Deut 29:38) and from the path of life available to those who follow wisdom (Prov 5:6).” (DBI)

“Since a plant's root may be viewed as its very life source, the Bible occasionally uses the image to describe the source of someone or something...Paul views Israel as the 'root' from which the people of God spring (Rom 11:16,18). He also warns that the love of money is the root, or source, of all kinds of evil (I Tim 6:10).” (DBI)

Advice to Teachers (vv. 11-16)

verse 11: “For leaders in Christ's church, integrity is essential (2 Cor 4:2): they flee immorality (1 Tim 6:11), do not act from impure motives (1 Thess 2:3) and avoid presenting stumbling blocks for others (2 Cor 6:3).” (DBI)

“Meekness is a virtue that NT Christians are commended to 'put on' (Col 3:12) and 'aim at' (1 Tim 6:11), and Christians are repeatedly exhorted to 'be' meek or gentle (Tit 3:2; 1 Pet 2:18; cf. 1 Thess 2:7; Jas 13, 17).” (DBI)

“The NT exhorts God's people to flee unrighteousness (1 Cor 6:18; 10:14; 1 Tim 6:11) and to pursue righteousness and all its attendants (Rom 12:10; 14:19; 1 Cor 14:1; 1 Thess 5:15; 1 Pet 3:11). The nature of this flight and chase reveal one's character and motives.” (DBI)

verse 12: “Paul writes to Timothy about 'the eternal life to which you were called when you made the good confession,' (1 Tim 6:12 RSV), and to the Thessalonians about being called 'through our gospel' to be saved (2 Thess 2:13-14). Here the calling of God is the general call to salvation and sanctification that comes in the same form to all people.” (DBI)

verse 13: Knight explains that “paraggello (see 1:3) means here 'I charge,' i.e., 'I command' or 'I direct.' It is in the first person to express Paul's authority as Christ's apostle (cf. 1 Thess. 4:11; 2 Thess. 3:4,6,10,12, especially vv. 6 and 12).”
verse 14: “Although Genesis 3 puts the emphasis on the willful disobedience of Adam and Eve, the NT commentary evokes a complementary picture of the pathos of Eve as a victim of Satan 's seduction (1 Cor 11:3; 1 Tim 2:14).” (DBI)

verse 15: Lea states, “In vv. 15-16 Paul expressed seven statements of majestic praise to God in a moving doxology. In v. 15 he used three names in a description of God. The phrases are Jewish in style and praise the unique sovereignty of God...All three titles fit well with the emphasis that the return of Christ is certain ('God will bring [it] about') and sovereignty in his hands ('in his own time'). Paul's certainty of Christ's return did not cause him arbitrarily to set a date.”

“The image of four horsemen (Rev 6:1-8) illustrates the difference between power and authority...Only Christ, rider of the white horse, returns later and wears the name 'King of kings and Lord of lords' (Rev. 19:1-16; cf. Rev 17:14; Dan 2:47; 1 Tim 6:15).” (DBI)

verse 16: “Writers who portray the transcendent also use a technique of negation, denying to the spiritual world the qualities of finite reality. In such 'negative theology' God is portrayed in terms of what he is not – 'immortal' (not mortal; Rom 1:23; 1 Tim 1:17), 'beyond measure' (Ps 147:5), 'unapproachable' (1 Tim 6:16).” (DBI)

“By extension, God who is light inhabits a heaven bathed in light. Here light becomes the preeminent symbol for transcendence, dear to the mystics' and poets' expressions through the ages. The classic passage is 1 Timothy 6:16...” (DBI)

Concerning the statement that no man has seen God, Davids canvasses those passages reporting people witnessing the presence of God. These include Exodus 24:11; Exodus 33:18-20, 29; Ezekiel 1-2; Isaiah 6:1-5. But he notes that in no case did they actually see his face.

“The Bible describes God both as living in unapproachable light (1 Tim 6:10) and as dwelling in thick darkness (Ps 97:2; Ps 104:2).” (DBI)

COMMENTARIES ON EPHESIANS: PART 2

 While Bible commentaries and dictionaries are the most utilized resources for most serious Bible readers (see Part 1), there is a surprisingly diverse number of additional aids which are often overlooked.

Study Bibles

These may seem obvious to some, but many people in choosing a Bible to purchase simply make their choice based on the translation with which they are most familiar. I would suggest that one also keep in mind the special features present in a good study Bible. These may include any or all of the following: short commentaries on difficult passages, cross-references to other Bible passages, brief introductions to each book, footnotes with alternative readings for those verses in which the original language may be difficult to understand or in which various manuscripts contain significant variations, Bible atlases, maps accompanying the text, short subject indices, etc. Before buying one, you would be well-served to look at it in person or carefully study the features of each possibility on line.

In general, the theological tenor of the comments accompanying the text will match up with the translation in question with, for example, The Jerusalem Bible is geared more toward a Roman Catholic audience, editions of NRSV being somewhat on the liberal side, ESV being decidedly evangelical in tone, and editions of loose paraphrases such as TEV or The Message generally having little or nothing in the way of study aids.

Regarding Ephesians specifically, one will find that NEB, for example, is very good at including footnotes indicating alternative translations (A few samples are given below), but contains no additional study aids.

Verse Translation Alternative Translation

2:20 foundation stone keystone

2:21 the whole building every structure

3:15 every family his whole family

3:19 the fullness of God himself the fullness which God requires

In contrast to the NEB, The New Oxford Annotated Bible-NRSV contains a general introduction to each grouping of books (Pentateuch, Wisdom and Poetry, Gospels, etc.); essays on the development of the canon of the Bible, textual criticism, translation issues, various schools of interpretation, biblical geography, and cultural backgrounds; timelines; chronological table of ancient rulers; guide to weights and measures; parallel passages; and a set of color maps of the Holy Land over time. In addition, there is an approximately one-page introduction to each individual book, listing of textual variations and alternative translations on each page along with detailed notes regarding issues that might need special clarification.

One sample page of NRSV Study Bible contains the following footnotes concerning Ephesians 4-5:

    4:22-24 “The old lifestyle, like worn-out clothing must be replaced by a new lifestyle guided by one's knowledge of Christ.”

    4:25 “See Zech 8.16.”

    4:26-27 “Indulged anger (see Ps 4.4) is an opportunity for demonic influence (cf. v. 31).”

    4:30 “Seal, see 1.13”

    4:32-5:2 “Christians must imitate God's (see Mt 5.48) and Christ's forgiveness and self-sacrificial actions. Fragrant offering, see Ex 29.18; Ezek 20.14; cf. Phil 4.18.”

    5:3-5 “Sexual sins are the primary focus in these verses.”

    5:8 “Darkness/light, apocalyptic imagery for the domains of the hostile spiritual powers and of God and Christ.”

Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament

I have found this to be a very useful reference book to illustrate how the NT authors utilized ideas and imagery from the OT in their writings. The chapter on Ephesians by Thielman is 20 pages long and contains detailed comments on eight extended passages by Paul which drew on the OT. For example, Ephesians 4:7-11 draws heavily on Psalm 68:18, and Thielman breaks up his comments on this correspondence into the following sub-sections: “Paul's Quotation in NT Context,” “Psalm 68:18 in OT Context,” “Psalm 68:18 in Jewish Interpretations,” “Paul's text,” “Paul's Use of Psalm 68:18,” and “The Theological Implications of Paul's Use of Psalm 68:18.” Thus, in a way, this chapter becomes not only a commentary on Ephesians 4, but also a commentary on Psalm 18, a textual commentary, and a theological essay as well.

Ephesians within the NT Canon

This is a whole subject in itself since it deals with questions of authorship, dating, and early Christian history. Brevard Childs has written a book on this subject (The New Testament as Canon: An Introduction) as well as a matching volume on the Old Testament. He devotes 13 pages to the Epistle to the Ephesians, divided into sub-sections dealing with subjects such as the letter's addressee, the problem of authorship, the purpose of the letter, and its canonical shape.

His conclusion is as follows: “Up to this point in the analysis we have described the epistle to the Ephesians in terms of indirect Pauline authorship. In fact, the major exegetical problems do not turn on deciding the question of authorship in a strictly historical sense. Rather, the central problem lies in evaluating the role and the validity of this extended witness of the apostle Paul which the canonical process has received, nourished, and shaped. It is significant to observe that the church did not canonize the process [of authorship] as normative, but rather the interpreted text. The role of canon does not consist in stifling the church's continued search in understanding the truth of the gospel, but rather it stakes out the arena in which the church confesses the Word of God has been and will be heard by the community of faith.”

Reading between the lines, it is fairly obvious that Childs is by no means a conservative Christian, and his somewhat skeptical attitude colors the way he approaches his subject. Nevertheless, he does impart some useful information as long as one does not accept all that he has to say on this subject without seriously examining it first.

Specialized Study Books

Stott's The Cross of Christ is one such example. The index to this book cites over forty pages which comment on the relation of Ephesians to that specific subject. Taking one random example, he writes, “Life in a Christian home, which should in any case be characterized by natural human love, should be further enriched by supernatural divine love, that is, the love of the cross. It should mark all Christian family relationships, between husband and wife, parents and children, brothers and sisters. For we are to 'submit to one another out of reverence for Christ' (Eph. 5:21), the Christ whose humble and submissive love led him to the cross. Yet it is specially husbands who are singled out...(vv. 25-27). This Ephesians passage is commonly regarded as being very hard on wives, because they are to recognize the 'headship' God has given to their husbands. But it is arguable that the quality of self-giving love required of husbands is even more demanding....This is a Calvary love. It is both self-sacrificial (he 'gave himself up for her', v. 25) and constructive ('to make her holy' and resplendent, growing into her full potential, vv. 26-27). It is also caring and protective...(vv. 28-29). Christian homes in general, and Christian marriages in particular, would be more stable and more satisfying if they were marked by the cross.”

One other random example of a specialized study is a book by Beale and Gladd titled Hidden But Now Revealed. They expend over 50 pages just discussing the ins and outs of the subject of “Mystery” as it appears in Ephesians.

You would probably be surprised to see how many other Christian books dealing with an individual subject such as above have at least one reference to Ephesians.

Hermeneutics

This subject deals with general principles to keep in mind while attempting to interpret passages in the Bible. As such, books on this subject are likely to quote from Ephesians, or other parts of Scripture, to use as typical illustrations. One such trustworthy source for the general reader is Fee and Stuart's How to Read the Bible for All its Worth. It contains references to Ephesians scattered throughout, which can be be easily located through the index. Two such examples are quoted below:

“David, who expresses in the Psalms God's blessing in the strongest terms, lived a life that was filled with almost constant tragedy and disappointments; as 1 and 2 Samuel describe. Yet he praises and thanks God enthusiastically at every turn, even in laments, just as Paul advises us to do even in the midst of hard times (Eph. 1:16; 5:20).”

“Orthodoxy is correct belief. Orthopraxy is correct action. Through the prophets God calls the people of ancient Israel and Judah to a balance of right belief and action. This, of course, remains the very balance that the New Covenant requires as well (cf. James 1:27; 2:18; Eph 2:8-10).”

The Hermeneutical Spiral by Osborne is another useful resource. In his chapter of “Syntax” the author discusses in detail (6 pages) Ephesians 3:16-19, which he breaks down into “Prayer for power” (vv 16-17a), “Prayer for insight” (vv 17b-19a), and “Prayer for fullness” (v 19b).

Hermeneutical Mistakes

The negative aspects of prior writers attempting to interpret biblical passages is also the subject of at least two prominent books. The first is Exegetical Fallacies by D.A. Carson. He spends six pages discussing such errors in Ephesians alone. At the conclusion of his book he states, “This discussion has necessarily treated fallacies piecemeal; but in the actual work of exegesis, some passages by their sheer complexity stir up a multiplicity of fallacies at the same time – in the same way that the law stirs up sin. I think of passages such as Psalm 110; Isaiah 52:13-53:12; Matthew 16:13-23; Ephesians 5:21-30; and Revelation 20:1-6.” Therefore in such passages, one must be especially careful in trying to interpret them.
The second book on this subject of which I am aware is Abusing Scripture by Brauch. The index to this book contains approximately one hundred references to pages discussing passages in Ephesians. I will only cite one example. For 6 pages he discusses the subject of submission and how it has been often misunderstood, with special attention to Paul's comments in Ephesians 5:22-24. I won't repeat is detailed analysis here, but only quote his concluding remarks:

“The traditional Christian view regarding women has thus been nurtured for centuries by understandings and interpretations of words that are, at best, problematic, and may therefore be decidedly unbiblical, the consequence of abuse of words. This means that this Christian interpretive tradition has significantly contributed to the long and tragic history of women's inferior status, of their restricted roles in home, church and society, and of their frequent subjugation and abuse in hierarchical marriage relationships.”

Literary Structure

I have saved this one for last since it is my own favorite aspect of the Bible to investigate. While most commentaries and Bible dictionaries will at least contain a suggested table of contents to books such as Ephesians, analysis of the literary structure attempts to go one step further by showing how each individual passage relates to the others. It thus accomplishes several things at the same time by: providing a sort of internal commentary by locating parallel passages, acting as a guide to dividing up the book into its discrete paragraphs, and showing the main point(s) of emphasis intended by the author (whether one considers the human author or the ultimate author, the Holy Spirit).

Some of the larger commentaries devoted to only one biblical book will provide such proposed organizations or structures (generally symmetrical in nature), but one should not be surprised to find that there will often be a wide variety of such schemes proposed depending on the author.

This general field of structural literary analysis in itself the subject of exceedingly few recent scholarly books. There is David Dorsey's The Literary Structure of the Old Testament, but unfortunately he does not have a corresponding New Testament analysis. However, one fallback option is to simply search on this present website for my “Ephesians: Introduction to the Literary Structure” (or for any of the other books in the Bible). It is a brief summary of a much longer chapter to my unpublished book The Structure of Scripture. If you would like me to forward you by email the complete chapter on Ephesians or any other book in the Bible, just send me a message at elmerphd21@hotmail.com.

There are, however, two additional sources which may or may not be of help if you are interested.

One is Chiasmus in Antiquity by John Welch. A major limitation of this book is that it deals with only a single form of literary symmetry employed in the Bible, namely, chiasms. These are mirror-image arrangements illustrated by one such example he finds in Ephesians 4:4-6:

        a. One body (4a)

                b. One spirit (4b)

                        c. One hope (4c)

                                d. One Lord (5a)

                        c'. One faith (5b)

                b'. One baptism (5c)

        a'. One Father in all (6a)

This is fairly typical of Welch's analyses in that it is very weak indeed. Thus, it is hard to see any particularly clear-cut parallel whatsoever between a and a' or between b and b', even if c and c' do have similarities. Also, one would expect the references to the three persons of the Trinity to be symmetrically located at the beginning, center, and conclusion, which they certainly are not. In addition, in a chiasm one finds the main point of emphasis at the center whereas section a' appears to have the most emphasis in this series with its four-fold repetition of the word “all.” In conclusion, one should take all the analyses in Welch's book with a large grain of salt, and that is especially true of Welch's chapter on the Book of Mormon (He himself in an elder in that church).

John Breck's The Shape of Biblical Language is more trustworthy. For one thing it rightly broadens the concept of a chiasm to include parallel elements within mirror-image ones as well as recognizing symmetrical structures which have no center-point. The latter is demonstrated below in his analysis of Ephesians 5:21-33.

        a. Submit yourself in reverence [fear] for Christ (v. 21)

                b. Wives, submit yourselves to your husbands as the Church does to Christ (vv. 22-24)

                        c. Husbands, love your wives as Christ did the Church (v. 25)

                                d. that [hina] he might sanctify her (v. 26)

                                d'. that [hina] he might present the Church to himself in splendor (v. 27)

                        c'. Husbands should love their wives as their one bodies (vv. 28-30)

                b'. A man should join his wife, referring also to Christ and the Church (vv. 31-32)

        a'. Let each man love his wife as himself and let the wife respect [fear] her husband (v. 33)

As you can see, this organization, in contrast to that of Welch, is firmly based on parallels both in specific wording and themes.

COMMENTARIES ON EPHESIANS

In an earlier post titled “Bible Commentaries and Dictionaries” I discussed in a rather general way these aids to reading the Bible intelligently. Now I would like to zero in one particular book of the Bible to show how the different approaches to commenting on Scripture play out in practice.

Amount of detail

It is rather obvious that an entry on Ephesians in a standard Bible dictionary cannot go into nearly as much detail regarding that epistle as can a full-length commentary on that book alone. Thus concerning Ephesians, we run the gamut from a 3-1/2 page entry by Marcus Barth in The Oxford Companion to the Bible to the same author's two-volume, 1,200+ page Anchor Bible commentary on the same subject. It all depends on how much depth one wishes to go into as to which extreme (or something in between) better fits your particular needs.

As a general rule, I have found that many modern commentary series tend to have begun as simple introductions for the general reader, but soon morphed into longer and longer, as well as more and more detailed, tomes seemingly better suited for pastors and other professional Bible scholars. It certainly is the case for both the Anchor Bible and New International Commentaries on the Old and New Testaments. For example, the NICNT commentary on Ephesians began in 1957 with the publication of a 300-page book covering both Ephesians and Colossians. But it was supplanted within the series in 2020 by a commentary on Ephesians alone by Cohick which weighed in at well over 500 pages.

Whereas a stand-alone commentary on Ephesians can afford to cover almost every important subject related to that epistle in detail, one- or two-volume commentaries on the Bible contain much more limited space. Nevertheless, most competent authors will use that restricted space wisely and manage to cover, if only briefly, basic introductory matter such as authorship, historical context, main themes, and organization before beginning their verse-by-verse analysis and explanation.

 Emphasis

It also turns out that each individual commentator tends to have his own pet area of interest, which is bound to be reflected in the relative amount of space spent discussing that particular aspect of any biblical book. Again, taking Ephesians as an example, consider Harold Hoehner's massive, 900-page commentary on this book. In discussing the sixteen verses of Ephesians 4 alone, as just one example, he expends 80 pages of text. These include over 300 quite detailed footnotes listing additional resources, both ancient and modern, one might want to consult for other information on the verses in question. Other professional Bible scholars today would probably greatly appreciate such references to these often obscure sources, but it is highly doubtful that a general reader would really go to all the trouble of trying to locate the writings of St. Cyril or Chrysostom just in order to find out what they have to say on a given subject.

But what about Marcus Barth's detailed commentary? It also contains some quite long footnotes, but in contrast to Hoehner's these do not merely list a compendium of additional resources. Instead, they go into detail concerning exactly what these sources actually say so that one does not have to take the time to dig up the original writings.

In addition, Barth includes a series of essays on particular subjects brought up by the Scriptural text in question. Concerning Ephesians 4, after his verse-by-verse comments on this chapter he appends fifty pages of essays on eight specific subjects ranging from “The Indictment of the Gentiles” to “Truth in Jesus” to “The Sin Against the Spirit.” Personally, I find these much more enlightening than a mere bibliographic listing.

Theology

As I have probably mentioned before, most general readers are generally somewhat suspicious regarding the denominational background of the author of a commentary, and this is understandable. But in practice it turns out that, with some notable exceptions, serious Bible scholars of quite diverse theological backgrounds tend to a large extent to agree with one other more than one would think. Instead, the biggest differences seem to be between the liberal and conservative wings of Christianity than, for example, the differences between Southern Baptists and Roman Catholics.

Consider the comments in Father R.E. Brown's Introduction to the New Testament. His not very surprising opinion is that Ephesians exemplifies “the initial stages of high ecclesiology, sacramentalism, hierarchy, ordination, and dogma – in short the beginning of the distinctive features of Catholic Christianity.” But not so expected by many readers is the fact that Brown also agrees with most liberal scholars in denying that Paul was the author of this work.

Moving to the more conservative compilation The New Bible Dictionary, F.F. Bruce, the noted evangelical author of the article on Ephesians, readily admits that there are objections raised against Pauline authorship and even goes to the length of fairly presenting the main five problem areas that have been raised. But in spite of that, he remains fully confident that Paul is indeed the author and refers the reader to other resources which refute these objections. And if one were to consult the even more conservative commentaries designed for a popular audience, you should not be surprised at all if the subject of Pauline authorship is not even discussed or questioned at all. In addition, these sorts of popular writings generally tend to avoid any controversial subjects whatsoever, but only what they feel might bolster the readers up in the faith and not cause them any distress they might feel in encountering unfamiliar ideas.

Moritz, writing in New Dictionary of Biblical Theology, contains a 4-page summary of the major theological thought in Ephesians, divided into categories such as “Celebrating divine grace,” “The Spirit as the seal of salvation,” “Grace, election and salvation,” and “Walking in Christ.” In the section discussing “Heaven as an expression of divine kingship,” for example, he cites Ephesians 1:3,10,20; 2:6; 3:10,14-15; and 6:12 and discusses what each of these passages has to say regarding that subject.

Early Translations and Commentaries

If you go on the Internet looking for free access to commentaries available there, you will most likely find several to choose between, all written a century or more ago. There are several problems you will encounter in trying to utilize them as your main sources of information regarding a book like Ephesians. In the first place, they will all be based on the King James translation, which has been shown to be much less accurate in rendering the meaning of the original Greek text than most modern translations in a number of places.

Secondly, KJV is written in the English language of 1611, and therefore its original meaning can be easily misunderstood. That same factor also works against the older commentators in the often stilted (to our ears) language with which they express their comments.

As one random example taken from Matthew Henry's 1710 commentary on Ephesians, here is his introduction to Ephesians 1:3-14: “He begins with thanksgivings and praise, and enlarges with a great deal of fluency and copiousness of affection upon the exceedingly great and precious benefits which we enjoy by Jesus Christ. For the great privileges of our religion are very aptly recounted and enlarged upon in our praises to God.” Not every Bible student could readily understand these words at first reading.

Specialized Dictionaries and Commentaries

These resources are often ignored by those wishing to know more about a portion of Scripture they are reading. What one might lose in terms of a comprehensive understanding, is often gained in terms of how they enlighten the reader concerning one particular aspect of the text. Below are a few examples:

Word Studies These come in all sizes, from a one-volume book by W.E. Vine to multi-volume sets. Thus, Vine lists seven types of occasions in which the Greek word eirene (“peace”) is used in the New Testament. One of these types refers to “the harmonized relationships between God and man, accomplished through the gospel, Acts 10:36; Eph. 2:17.” With such information, one can (a) compare those two passages for content or (b) contrast Ephesians 2:17 with the other types of 'peace' illustrated in the New Testament.

At the other extreme is the 3-volume Dictionary of New Testament Theology. Its 7-page entry on eirene begins with a listing of all the Greek words derived from it, what it meant in classical Greek as well as in the Greek translations of the OT and early Jewish literature before moving onto a listing of six different nuances to the word along with most of the NT passages containing it.

The author places Ephesians 4:23, along with Acts 7:26 and Galatians 5:22, into the category relating to harmony among men. “Hence the word can describe both the content and the goal of all Christian preaching, the message itself being called 'the gospel of peace' (Eph. 6:15; cf. Acts 10:36; Eph. 2:17). In other words, the biblical concept of peace (from salom) is primarily that of wholeness.”

But in addition, Ephesians 1:2 and 6:23 can be included under the category in which eirene is “opposed to akatastasia, disorder; peace is an order established by God as the God of peace.”

Finally, relating to a third category, “Peace, in the sense of wholeness both for men and the world (2 Cor. 5:17; Gal. 6:15), brings a newness to human relationships...God in Christ has come preaching peace” as in Ephesians 2:17.

Dictionary of Scripture and Ethics contains an index which contains roughly 200 different listings to passages within Ephesians. These include everything from overviews of the whole book to detailed discussions of specific ethical issues about which Ephesians has something to say. I picked one of these listings at random and it turned out to be a general introduction to the book by Sumney which states, “Ephesians addresses a more general audience and a less specific situation than any of the undisputed Pauline Letters. By its time, arguments about the place of gentiles in the church had cooled, so the letters emphasis on unity is less polemical than what we find in Galatians. The arguments in Ephesians remain so general that many see it as kind of circular letter. Its emphasis on unity makes Ephesians a letter than focuses on innerecclesial relations. This ecclesial focus dominates the ethical outlook of Ephesians.”

Hard Sayings of the Bible, as its title implies, concentrates only on those individual statements which its authors feel are most likely to be misunderstood or confusing to the reader. So, regarding the Epistle to the Ephesians specifically, there are short essays attempting to explain what 4:9-10 meant by talking about Christ ascending and descending; the submission of wives in 5:22; and whether Paul approved of slavery (6:5-8). As you can see, it is a commentary which is quite restricted in scope, but one which may be very useful to those puzzled by what Ephesians may say at a given point. This is in contrast to those commentaries which seem to purposefully steer away from a discussion on any controversial issue.

Encyclopedia of Biblical Prophecy would appear on the surface to be a poor source of information regarding a book like Ephesians. However, its author, J. Barton Payne, manages to identify seven different verses in this epistle referring to prophecies, whether fulfilled in the past or in events yet to come. To each of these, he assigns a number corresponding to one of the specific chronological ages he lists, ranging from the Primeval-Patriarchal Era (#1) to the inauguration of the New Jerusalem (#17). Thus, we have Ephesians 2:12 referring to Period #13 (Life of Christ); 1:13 assigned to Period # 14 (Establishment of the Church); 1:14, 4:30, 5:14 and 5:27 to #15 (Christ's Second Coming); and 1:18 and 1:21 to #16 (The Millennium). Of course, if one were to ask a amillennialist or a dispensationsalist to go though the same exercise, a quite different set of assignments would probably result.

Dictionary of Biblical Imagery is another rich source of information regarding the various hyperbolas, similes, metaphors, etc. present in the Bible. Through the indices at the back of the book, one can search by either Scripture verse or subject. There are actually over 250 specific references to the various images in the book of Ephesians which can be found here.

Picking up on just one such image, that of exclusion, in Ephesians 2:11-13, the anonymous author of one article says, “The Gentile audience was formerly scorned as 'uncircumcision' (akrobystia) by those who proudly called themselves 'the circumcision' (peritome, Eph 2:11). They were 'without Christ; that is, they were outside of the chosen people in whom the Messiah, the true king and deliverer of Israel , was rooted. They were 'separated from the commonwealth of Israel,' like impoverished outsiders who gazed longingly across the border at the privileged people in their fair land. They were 'aliens to the covenants of promise;' having no access to the series of historic divine transactions that promised the blessings of a true humanity...They were 'without hope and without God (atheioi) in the world.' a people separated from the Creator and covenant God, listless vagabonds upon the earth with no future worth living for. Viewed from the ramparts of Zion, they were 'far off' (Eph 2:13), over the horizon. These images form a picture of irrevocable exclusion, of particularized privilege, of clearly marked insiders and outsiders.”

Other less obvious sources of information regarding Ephesians are discussed in Part 2 of this post.