THE MAN WITH THE WATER PITCHER (MATTHEW 26:17-19; MARK 14:12-16; LUKE 22:8-12)

When it comes to the story of Jesus entering Jerusalem for the last time to meet his death by crucifixion, most biblical scholars spend pages of print discussing the timing of the events. Especially confusing is the chronological relationship of the Last Supper with the Passover meal and whether the two are pictured as separate or identical meals.

But rather than rehashing all the arguments revolving around that rather complicated issue, I would like to spend a little time zeroing in on the events immediately preceding that Last Supper Jesus had with his closest followers. If you recall, both Mark's and Luke's accounts closely follow one another in describing Jesus' instructions to Peter and John for them to enter the city where they would meet a man carrying a water pitcher. They are told to follow him to the guest chamber already prepared for the meal. By contrast, Matthew only tells them to meet “such-and-such man” and follow him, and John omits the episode entirely.

Some of the controversies regarding these parallel passages are given below with comment by various scholars weighing in on these issues:

Was Jesus speaking prophetically or had he made prior arrangements with the owner of the house?

In terms of the arrangements regarding the man who was assigned to show the two apostles the location of the proper house, Geldenhuys feels that Jesus “had probably arranged with him that at a given time during the morning before the Passover he should be with a pitcher of water at a certain near the portal where his disciples would enter the city...”

Marshall concludes that “it is a moot point whether he is simply giving directions in terms of a previously-made secret arrangement with the owner of the room or is acting with supernatural knowledge and authority.”

Craddock is also of two minds regarding this issue: “In view of that [i.e. possible threats on Jesus' life], one could easily read Jesus' instructions to Peter and John as intriguing prearrangements, as shadowy moves in a mystery novel...And there is no reason not to think in terms of Jesus' having made plans for observing the Passover. However, both here and at 19:28-34 Luke probably wants the reader to think in terms of Jesus' prophetic knowledge.”

We get the same sort of dual understanding from Fitzmyer, who says. “Jesus' foreknowledge is evident...But cf. Matt 26:18: 'Go into the city to so-and-so,' which clearly implies prearrangement on the part of Jesus.”

Anderson adds, “It was quite usual for pilgrims to plan ahead for a room for the Passover. But the title the teacher (cf. [Mark] 5:36), correctly rendered as a proper name in RSV, and the somewhat unexpected possessive in the phrase my guest room, suggest that the one involved here is far more than an ordinary pilgrim

Who was the man with the pitcher?

Hendricksen: “According to Zahn this man was John Mark's father, then still alive. See Mark 14:51,52; Acts 12:12.” Grosheide also calls attention to this possibility, but does not necessarily endorse it. Hendricksen goes on to say: “His – as well as my – position is: we do not know. This holds also with respect to the theory that the man carrying the pitcher was John Mark himself. All such embellishments are nothing but speculation.”

My own suspicion is that John Mark was in fact that man the two apostles were sent to meet. In Mark 14:51-52, we run across a small incident not recorded in any of the other gospel accounts of a young follower running away from the authorities while leaving his clothing behind. The main question is not why the other evangelists ignore this event, but why Mark bothered to include it at all. At this point, I admit that I am not entirely alone in suggesting that the obvious solution is that the young man was in fact Mark himself. Also in favor of this embarrassing incident being autobiographical are the following factors:

The upper room location for the Last Supper appears to have been chosen in advance with secrecy at the house of John Mark's mother.

It is probable that it is also the house where the Last Supper was held.with secrecy in mind.

Whoever followed Jesus and the apostles to the Garden had to have done so by trailing them from that house.

When the apostles returned to Jerusalem waiting for the risen Jesus, we know that they were staying in secrecy at the house of John Mark's mother.

Thus, Mark records this highly embarrassing fact regarding his ignoble departure as an act of partial atonement for his actions. And as to what this has to do with the man with the pitcher, if indeed carrying a pitcher was women's work (see next section below), then that might be another autobiographical note Mark includes which also shows him in a rather embarrassing situation. Thus, these two incidents could be said to bracket the whole section starting with the preparations for the Passover right through to Jesus' arrest in the garden.

Was it unusual for a man to be carrying a water pitcher?

Geldenhuys quotes Major as stating “In the East it is women who bear pitchers of water; men carry water-skins.” Thus, it is reasoned, there would be no difficulty at all for the two apostles to identify the man they were looking for. Lane concurs with this opinion completely.

Fitzmyer is not quite as convinced and just says, “That may well have been a task for a woman in first-century Palestine. See Gen 24:11; John 4:7.”

Lastly, there is the more skeptical opinion of Marcus: “This suggestion [regarding only women carrying water jugs] goes back to Lagrange, who lived in Jerusalem at the turn of the twentieth century, and thus based on nothing more than his observation of Palestinian habits in his own day...It is true that in the OT carrying water is sometimes described as women's work (Gen 24:11-12, Exod 2:16, 1 Sam 9:11), but there are also OT passages that speak of men carrying water (e.g. Deut 29:10-11, Josh 9:21-27)...Jeremias suggests that the man in our story is either a domestic servant or a water seller. The theory that the disciples follow the man because they see him engaged in an unusual activity is also belied by the circumstance that it is he who approaches them...”

I have a story from my own life that may or may not have any bearing on this issue. Growing up in Southern California, I knew that one of the last thing a guy wanted to do was to take an umbrella with him even if it was already pouring down rain. If you did so, you would forever be labeled as a sissy. Then I moved to Oregon where it rains, or at least drizzles, most of the year. I was shocked when I started to walk around campus and saw men who looked like they must have been linemen on our football team carrying around huge black umbrellas. And so I joined the crowd.

But then we had four Cambodian men who were on campus as part of an exchange program. They all gleefully went to the Co-op and brought the most brightly colored women's umbrellas they could find and paraded around with them proudly, not realizing that they were standing out like sore thumbs. So how one dresses or carries around may speak volumes in one culture while not even being noticed in another one. Our ignorance regarding customs at Jesus' time requires that we be a little less definite in our pronouncements about things we do not completely understand.

Why was it necessary to employ such secrecy?

Marshall says, “The story itself suggests that Jesus made arrangements to hold the meal secretly, possibly in order to avoid arrest before he had completed what he intended to do; he is presented in the Gospels as being in control of the situation.”

“A sufficient reason for resorting to a means of recognition which would require no exchange of words in the street may be found in the determined search for Jesus and the issuance of a warrant for his arrest implied in John 11:57...It may be assumed that the owner of the house was a man of courage who had determined to shelter the 'heretic' Galilean and his outlawed company of followers.” (Lane)

Ellis suggests another possible reason for the secrecy: “The instructions are intended to avoid detection by the religious authorities. Perhaps this is because Jesus is already under threat of arrest or, less likely, because he is preparing to observe Passover at an illegal time.”

Are there any literary similarities between this event and others in the Bible?

Pao and Schnabel discuss and reject Boismard's suggested possibility that there are purposeful echoes of the incident in I Samuel 10 here since in that earlier episode the prophet Samuel gives Saul a sign that God will be with him. It reads in part “There as you come to the town, you will meet a band of prophets...[one] carrying a skin of wine...”

“The story is similar in pattern to that of the preparations for the entry to Jerusalem ([Lk] 19:22-35), and in both cases it is probable that the historical basis lies in a previous arrangement. (Marshall)

KNOWLEDGE IN 2 PETER

Quanbeck states, “Knowledge is one of the author's favorite words (1.2,3,5,6,8; 2:20; 3:18).” That makes exactly seven times in which it is used, the number 7 symbolically standing for perfection or completion.The contexts in which this word appears are also interesting to observe:

        1:2 the knowledge of God and of Jesus our Lord

        1:3 the knowledge of him who called us

        1:5 supplement...virtue with knowledge

        1:6 and knowledge with self-control

        1:8 the knowledge of our Lord Jesus Christ

        2:20 the knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ

        3:18 the knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ

I have previously demonstrated that this set of seven plays an important part in defining the symmetrical organization of this epistle (see my post on “II Peter: Introduction to the Literary Structure.”)

Green explains that in the context of II Peter, true knowledge was different than what the false teachers claimed to have. “True knowledge of God and Christ produces grace and peace in the life; what is more, it produces holiness.”

There are two examples of symmetry in this listing. The first and last two occurrences act as an inclusio [a set of bookends] for the whole letter, as indicated by the reversed wording

        “Jesus – Lord … Lord – Jesus.”

Next, note that the first two and last three in the series of seven concern the knowledge of Jesus, bracketing the two usages (1:6,8) in the center which do not specifically mention Him. However, as the footnote in the Jerusalem Bible points out, “All through this letter it is Christ who is proposed as the object of a Christian's knowledge.”

“Second Peter is characterized by an apocalyptic vision of this world as corrupt because of lust (1.4) and bound for destruction. It urges the reader to escape by means of the knowledge of Christ and of God and by earnest moral striving that is grounded in the promises and gifts of God. The goal is to participate in the divine nature and to enter the eternal kingdom (1.11).” (Tiller)

Reicke says, “The expression 'intimate knowledge' or 'adequate gnosis' appears repeatedly in the epistle. But the emphasis is not on the mystic experiences characteristic of Gnosticism, the representatives of which were proud of their 'gnosis' in the sense of ecstatic contact with eternity (cf. I Cor viii 1; II Cor xii 1-5). The author rather speaks polemically against the influence of Gnosticism (cf. Rev ii 14f.). Here it is a matter of continuously deepening knowledge of God's words in the plan of salvation, the life in Christ, and the eschatological hope. The believers were instructed in these subjects, when they were accepted into church fellowship, and it is now their responsibility to improve and apply their knowledge in these matters.”

Harvey also stresses the great importance of knowledge in this epistle, even labeling 1:3-21 “Life-Changing Knowledge of Jesus.” He goes on to say, “Peter's present boldness is the Holy Spirit inspiring him to strike a clear note as the theme of his letter: the Christian's ability by grace to discern between truth and falsehood, to endure hostility and persecution, and to live with hope and holiness while waiting for the 'new heaven and new earth,' all indeed realistic expectations because Christ has given everything we need to make these experiences happen.”

Payne says, “The message of the letter opens with a positive declaration of what God has given the Christian. Much of the phraseology of v. 3 recalls gnostic concepts and claims...against which Peter puts up the basic Christian truth that divine power, true knowledge (the Gk. word epignosis implies full knowledge), and all that stem from them, are the gifts of God, unmerited and but for His grace unattainable.”

“'Knowledge' [in 2 Peter 1:2]...implies an intimate and personal relationship. It is the means by which God's grace and peace may be received and experienced. Peter used this term epignosis again in 2 Peter 1:3, 8; and 2:20. The shorter form (gnosis) is found in 1:5-6 and 3:18. Christians are urged to take advantage of the 'full knowledge' available to them through Christ Jesus (each occurrence of epignosis in 2 Peter is related to Christ). In this way they could combat false teachers who claimed to have special knowledge (gnosis) but who openly practiced immorality (cf. Paul's usage of epignosis to combat incipient Gnosticism: Col. 1:9-10; 2:2; 3:10).” (Gangel)

Wheaton writes: “Knowledge is stressed here [i.e. 1:2] as the means by which grace and peace can be multiplied in the believer's life. The Gnostic deviationists exalted knowledge (Gk gnosis) as being superior to faith, and in reply orthodox writers stressed the importance for Christians to acquire epignosis, 'full knowledge', (as here) in order to combat this heresy. Such knowledge is never merely speculative, as was the Gnostic variety, but springs from a personal relationship with and experience of God in Jesus our Lord (cf. Jn. 17:3; Phil. 3:10).”

Schmitz: “The knowledge of God's truth is of equal importance with experiential profession of the Lord, and finally pushes it into the background. Hence, conversion to the Christian faith can be described almost technically as coming to a knowledge (epignosis) of the truth (2 Pet. 2:21, etc). In 2 Pet. epignosis is used in a similar theoretical, technical way in connection with God's call. Knowledge is here of the orthodox tradition, of the catholic [i.e. universal] doctrinal teaching (2 Pet. 1:2, 3, 8; 2:20) which, as in the Pastorals, must become effective in a corresponding manner of life. It is interesting that gnosis has a good sense in 2 Pet. (cf. 1:5f; 3:18). This does to apply to ch. 2, where an anti-gnostic writing (Jude) has been incorporated which uses only epignosis (2:20) and epiginosko (2:21).”

Considering the great emphasis on “knowledge” in this short epistle, as evidence by the above opinions, it is rather amazing that Neyrey in his commentary appears to go to great lengths to avoid mentioning this subject at all. Instead, he spends his time trying to defend his thesis that it was the Epicurean philosophy which Peter was countering instead of the Gnostics or proto-Gnostics. Thus, it is not surprising that in his discussion of 1:3-11, Neyrey carefully defines almost all of the key virtues listed there except for “knowledge,” presumably since that does not happen to fit into his overall thesis.

ROMANS 12

That this chapter constitutes a cohesive passage within the epistle is demonstrated by the almost complete symmetry shown below:

                                                      Figure 1: The Structure of Romans 12

A. address to “brothers” (1a)

        B. the mercies and will of God (1b, 2b)

                C. do's and don'ts (2a)

                        D. good (2c)

--------

A'. address to “all of you” (3a)

                                E. humility (3b)

                                        F. gifts of the Spirit (4-8)

                        D'. evil and good (9)

                                        F'. fruit of the Spirit (10-16a)

                                E'. humility (16b)

                        D''. evil (2x) (17a)

                                        F''. works of the Spirit (17b-18)

--------

A''. address to “beloved” (19a)

        B''. the wrath of God (19b)

                C'. do's and don'ts (20)

                        D''. evil (2x) and good (21)

The approximate center of this arrangement appears in verses 10-16a, a passage which in itself has boundaries marked by the appearances of “one another” in verses 10 (2x) and 16a. Note that I have broken out Sections E and E' from their adjacent verses only in order to highlight the symmetry in the above figure. Black arrives at roughly the same conclusion regarding the center-rpoint of this chapter in another way by proposing the following mirror-image composition for verses 9-13:

        1. v. 9

                2. vv. 10-11a

                        3. v. 11b

                2'. v. 12

        1'. v. 13

But really, the main thing Black's proposal has in its favor is not any thematic symmetry but the fact that both 2 and 2' contain three clauses, all beginning with the Greek word te (“in”), in contrast to the two clauses in the center section 3 which start with to (“in”) instead.

In contrast to the order exhibited in Figure 1, Fitzmyer treats the whole of Romans 12-13 as “quite unsystematic and somewhat rambling.” In agreement with that negative assessment, Davidson and Martin state: “In this section [i.e. vv. 3-21] the apostle evidently has in mind relations with both Christians and pagans. His admonitions are given spontaneously without any attempt at logical presentation.” Finally, Morris is of the opinion that “the whole section is somewhat loosely structured.”

My own opinion is that Figure 1 demonstrates that, as in all his writings, Paul's literary organization skills are clearly in evidence here as well.

Note the number of correspondences between sections F, F', and F'':

        Exhibit humility – vv. 3, 10, and 16

        Show zeal (spoude) – vv. 8 and 11

        Live in harmony with others – vv. 16 and 18

        Give generously to others – vv. 8 and 13

        Be compassionate – vv. 8, 9, 10

        Treat your enemies well – vv. 14 and 17-21

Another test of the proposed structure in Figure 1 is to compare its section divisions with those found in scholarly commentaries and English translations. Of the fourteen such divisions I canvassed, all but two agreed that vv. 1-2 formed the first section and vv. 3-8 the second. However, from that point on, they began to differ greatly, as shown below:

    Verses 3-13; 14-21                        JB

    Verses 9-10; 11-16; 17-21            NEB

    Verses 9-13; 14-21                      Martin and Davidson, NRSV, NIV

    Verses 9-21                                  Allen, Phillips, Kasemann, Witmer, RSV, AB

    Verses 9:13; 14-16; 17-21 TEV, Murray

    Verses 9-10; 11-16; 17-21         Morris

The divergencies between the above demonstrate that attempts to sub-divide Scripture using only perceived thematic changes without taking into account any verbal parallels present is bound to be heavily influenced by subjective factors. In addition, one should always give precedence to arrangements which yield a symmetrical organization, since these appear throughout the Old and New Testament.

Finally, another noteworthy fact is that there are an uncommonly large number of similarities between Romans 12 and Paul's Epistles to the Corinthians and the Ephesians.

                        Figure 2: Parallels with Ephesians and the Letters to the Corinthians

Romans 12 (verse)                  Parallel Verses

1                                         I Cor. 6:20; II Cor. 1:3

2                                          I Cor. 2:15-16; 7:31; II Cor. 3:18; Eph. 4:23; 5:10

3                                         I Cor. 4:6; Eph. 4:7

4                                         I Cor. 6:15; 12:5,12-14,25; Eph. 4:4, 16

5                                         I Cor. 10:17,33; 12:12-31; Eph. 1:23-24; 4:25; 5:30

6                                         I Cor. 7:7; 12:4,10-11; 13:2

7                                         I Cor. 12:5,28; 14:19,26; 16:15; II Cor. 4:1; 11:8; Eph. 4:11

8                                         II Cor. 8:2; 9:7,11; 11:3; Eph. 6:6

9                                         I Cor. 13:6-7; II Cor. 6:6; Eph. 5:2

12                                      Eph. 6:18

13                                      II Cor. 8:4; 9:13

16                                      I Cor. 1:10; II Cor. 13:11

17                                     I Cor. 13:5-6; II Cor. 8:21

 

RECENT ARTICLES ON NEW TESTAMENT ARCHAEOLOGY

I would like to highlight four articles in the Spring 2026 issue of Biblical Archaeology Today magazine dealing with New Testament issues.

Philip and the Ethiopian Eunuch Mark Wilson rehearses the meeting of these two as given by Luke in Acts 8:26-40. The major issue here concerns the identity of the Eunuch. Since he lives in Ethiopia, what we would now call the Sudan, it is usually assumed that he is not Jewish, but should be considered a dark-skinned Gentile. That poses two major problems since this man has traveled a very long way from home just in order to worship at the Temple. However, he should have been well aware that neither Gentiles nor eunuchs could properly do that. The latter is prohibited in Deuteronomy 23:1. In addition, the former is unlikely since Acts 10-11 clearly states that Cornelius and his family were the first Gentile converts to Christianity.

Therefore Wilson proposes that:

1. “Eunuch” can also refer to high officials who were not necessarily castrated (see the early Greek version of Genesis 39:1).

2. This man must have been a proselyte to Judaism, or a Jew who was captured by the Nubians on one of their raids on southern Egypt.

These are by no means new ideas. Wilson himself cites the writings of Willimon dating to 1988. And Fitzmyer in his 1997 commentary on Acts echoes these ideas and adds to the first proposal above the Old Testament examples of Genesis 40:2 and I Samuel 8:15. Also, he suggests that perhaps even if the man had been castrated, this event could be considered the fulfillment of the prophecy of Isaiah 56:3-4 in which a time is envisioned in which even eunuchs can come into the Lord's house. Then concerning Proposal 2, he points out that the Ethiopic language is related to both Aramaic and Hebrew so that neither the eunuch not Philip would have had any trouble reading the passage in the “chariot.” That last word, both Wilson and Fitzmyer agree, should probably much better be translated as a carriage.

The Last Supper: How Should It Be Pictured? Matthew Grey attempts to make the case that Matthew and Mark's accounts differ considerably from those later versions written by Luke and John. He feels that this crucial meal was conducted just like the ordinary Jews of that time would have eaten a family meal together – namely, by rolling out mats on the floor and sitting cross-legged together over a shared pot of food and one drinking cup. Grey feels that this picture is consistent with the two earlier Gospel accounts whereas the later two versions seem to indicate the more formal Roman custom of dining in a triclinium style. This latter involved reclining around a low U-shaped table.

On the surface, his thesis might have something in favor of it since not only was Matthew in actual attendance (unlike Luke), but also it is highly likely that the dining room was owned by Mark's mother and that Mark was the anonymous young man who followed the party out of the room to the Garden of Gethsemene and who had to flee naked when the Roman soldiers tried to arrest him. On the other hand, Luke was definitely not there, and both Luke and John were writing more to a Gentile audience than a Jewish one. Therefore, both may have used terms and customs which would be more familiar to those reading their accounts.

The evidence Grey presents is, however, anything but persuasive. For one thing, he seems to ignore the great importance attached to the Paschal Feast compared to an ordinary meal. It could have certainly been carried out whenever possible in a more formal setting than that used for usual dining. Remember that few of the Apostles, and certainly not Jesus, had a dwelling in Jerusalem suitable for feeding the whole group. Secondly, the text indicates that this meal took place not in a private home, but in a special dining area probably available for different groups to rent out. Thus, it could easily have been fitted out for either the higher-class Jews who had begun to imitate Roman customs or the many Roman Gentiles in the city in the triclinium manner. Even Grey admits that evidence for such dining establishments has been found in Jerusalem dating to the time in question.

Secondly, Grey criticizes those modern translations of passages such as in Mark 14:18 who substitute “reclining at table and eating” for the more accurate “sitting and eating.” But, as other commentators point out, the Greek word in question (anakeimai) can be equally rendered as sitting” or “reclining.”

Lastly, the consistent evidence of Luke 22:24-26 and John 13:23-26 describes an event which would be physically impossible to carry out if everyone was seated cross-legged. So either Luke and John made up that passage out of thin air, or the seating was really in the triclinium style – take your pick .

The Jewish Revolt on Cyprus The recently departed Thomas Davis left behind an interesting article concerning the little known revolt against Rome occurring on this island during 115-117 AD during which Roman soldiers killed almost a quarter million inhabitants. The presence of such a large Jewish population on that island is confirmed not only by the large percentage of Jewish coins found there by archaeologists but also by the presence of multiple synagogues as stated in Acts 13:5

What is unusual, however, is that Rome carried out no such drastic measures against the Jews living in Syria and Asia Minor. Davis feels that this might have been due to the fact that those areas had been heavily evangelized, causing the Jews there to have been converted to Christianity to a large extent. See Acts 9:20-22; 13:43; and 14:1 for such evidence. He concludes: “Indeed, the lack of resistance in these diaspora communities may be our best evidence of Christian expansion in Syria and Asia Minor by the beginning of the second century.”

The 70 AD Siege of Jerusalem Gyozo Voros recaps some of the well-known evidence left behind, which witnesses to all the destruction of the city of Jerusalem by Roman forces. That included the 2015 uncovering of a number of circular stones launched from Roman catapults. Then in 2024, his Hungarian team combined a 19^th century topographical map of the area with Josephus' account in his Jewish War of the siege in order to draw a fairly accurate picture of where the Roman camps must have been located as they circled the city. And the final step was to utilize a twentieth-century German military photograph taken before more recent building projects had taken place there. Together, we now have a complete picture of what the area must have looked like during this crucial siege.

MORE INSIGHTS FROM BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY TODAY: OLD TESTAMENT

 It has been several years since I have written a post highlighting several articles in a given issue of BAR magazine (see “Recent Insights from Biblical Archaeology Today”). However, the Spring 2026 issue contains a number which should be of interest to those studying the biblical accounts. And so I would like to briefly review four of these below dealing with OT events, and another three relating to the New Testament in a subsequent posting.

Word plays in the Bible There are a number of puns present in the Bible which are generally lost in English translation. The magazine editors highlight just three of these after explaining that in some cases “a rare word is used for stylistic reasons, such as to produce alliteration.”

1. goper = cypress wood and koper = pitch appear together in Genesis 6:14 describing the construction of Noah's ark. By the way, this explains the strange designation “gopher wood” found in the KJV.

2. In I Samuel 19:20, Saul sends men to “capture” David, and they come upon a “company” of prophets. In Hebrew, those two words read, respectively, lahaqat and laqahat.

3. The advice in Proverbs 23:1-2 includes a warning not to get used to eating the deceptive delicacies of your ruler (ba'al) or you will just be putting a knife to your throat (belo'eka).

The Siloam Tunnel Inscription As related in both II Kings 20:20 and Isaiah 22:9ff, King Hezekiah strengthened Jerusalem's defenses by constructing a tunnel that would provide water for the city in case of a siege. A message inscribed on the wall of the tunnel seemingly commemorates the exact moment at which digging teams from both sides broke through, allowing water to flow into the city from a spring outside the walls.

But in an article by Ariel Cohen, he questions this scenario on several grounds, which I will enumerate and let you decide for yourself their worth. In the first place, everyone seems to agree that the inscription was made by one or more of the stone-cutters themselves who had actually worked on the tunnel's construction. However, the identity of the intended audience is not as easy to determine for the following reasons:

    1. It is obvious that the inscription is quite far from the spot where the two sides actually met.

    2. There is the question of why an inscription marking such an important event would be located where no one could read it.

    3. The inscription does not give the historical background as to why the tunnel was constructed in the first place, something always included in an important monument.

    4. The fissure (zdh) mentioned in the inscription corresponds to no geological feature found in the tunnel.

Thus, Cohen concludes that the only scenario meeting these conditions is that the dam keeping the water from flooding the tunnel prematurely broke loose and drowned those workers who were in the tunnel at the time. Thus, it was written from one (or more) surviving stone-cutter for the benefit of the spirits of his drowned companions who were still believed to be roaming aimlessly and confused within the tunnel. Also, according to Cohen, the strange word zdh appearing in the inscription may be equated with the Hebrew root zwd/zyd, which in Psalm 124:4-5 is used for water overwhelming people.

In my own mind, this whole scenario just doesn't hold water, so to speak, Instead, it appears much more likely that this is just one more, albeit a little more detailed, example of the myriad of inscriptions found literally all around the world in which ordinary, anonymous people just want to leave some little trace of their existence behind after their death. We see this from the hand prints on the walls of ancient caves to the “Kilroy Was Here” notices scribbled by Allied soldiers during WWII to lovers carving their initials on the sides of trees to today's ubiquitous urban graffiti.

Hezekiah's Unpaid Tax Bill? That is the intriguing title of a brief article by one of the editors of BAR. It concerns a very small fragment of clay containing an Assyrian inscription that appears to have been utilized as a sort of cover letter seal describing the contents of a now-missing document, and it was found very close to Jerusalem's Western Wall. The style of cuneiform letters in the inscription dates it to about the 8^th to 7^th centuries BC. That places it during the royal reign of either Hezekiah, Manasseh, or Josiah. The author of this article speculates that since it seems to refer to a delay in payment of a bill that perhaps it refers to the tax revolt carried out by King Hezekiah against King Sennacherib, as told in II Kings 18:7. This is an intriguing, if yet unproven, speculation.

"LIGHT" IN THE PSALMS

Borchert provides a good introduction to this subject when he writes that “for the inspired writers, light is tied inseparably to the powerful presence and activity of God as the ultimate source of the first creation. Moreover, at a time when the sun, moon and stars were worshiped as deities, the Bible rejects such worship and represents light and the luminaries as part of creation...While the Bible does not teach a metaphysical dualism of two eternal deities [as did Zoroastrianism and Manicheanism], the writers certainly employ the themes of light and darkness.

“The Psalms and the wisdom literature of the OT contain many references to these themes. In reflecting on his life in God, the psalmist rejoices that God is his light and his salvation (Ps. 27:1), that the encompassing darkness of night is not to be feared because light and darkness were both under God's control (139:11-12), and that God is his fountain of life in whose light we see light (36:9). Therefore he begs God to support his cause by sending out divine light and truth to lead him (43:3).”

An anonymous author writing in The Dictionary of Biblical Imagery adds the following: “The first thing that biblical writers note about physical light is...that God made it. In contrast to the pagan impulse to deify the heavenly bodies for their light-giving properties, the writers of the Bible consistently separate light from its Creator, making it an index to the divine instead of deity itself. The greatest example is Psalm 148, where the sun, moon and stars are commanded to praise the Lord.

“ In the elemental world of the Bible, People live in close correspondence to the daily cycle of sunrise and nightfall...Thus it is in the early morning that...God protects his holy city (Ps 46:5, dawn being the customary time to attack a city)...Not surprisingly, the poets of the Bible give us the most rapturous pictures of the life-giving and illumination properties of physical light. The nature poetry of the Bible and psalms of praise are the greatest repository: God has 'prepared the light and the sun' (Ps 74:16 KJV); God covers himself 'with light as with a garment' (Ps 104:2 RSV); God's omnipresence is so powerful that 'darkness is as light with thee' (Ps 139:12 RSV).”

Selman highlights yet other verses in Psalms: “Light emanating from other light-bearers is treated...as 'his [i.e. God's] lightning' (Ps 97:4; cf. 77:18), by which God lights up the world...God...can even make night shine as bright as day (Ps 139:12)...The idea of God as the provider of light was a regular feature of Israel's worship. God's gift of light in the Exodus and the desert is highlighted in the Psalms (Ps 77:18; 105:39)...Several passages speak of 'God shining on his people,' usually in the context of temple worship (Ps 76:4)...The Aaronic blessing has also influenced a prayer for worldwide blessing in Ps 67:1, which is one of several prayers for God's face to shine. The anticipated consequences in all these prayers are quite general ranging from deliverance in trouble (Ps 31:16; Dan 9:17) to increased knowledge and of his ways (Ps 67:2; 119:135)...In some contexts, the meaning of light given to the eyes is defined more precisely...it can refer to moral and spiritual understanding derived from God's word (Ps 19:8; 119:130) [and] hope for those in trouble (Ps 13:3; 18:28)...”

Hahn: “In the LXX [Greek Septuagint] lamprotes stands for the Heb. no'am in Psa. 90:17. The word no'am means pleasantness of favor with no intrinsic conception of brightness. These words are important theologically since, in certain contexts, they indicate that God manifests himself as light and hence is a source of illumination, though Yahweh himself is rarely found as the subject of one of these vbs. (see 2 Sam. 22:28; 'my God lightens the darkness'; cf. Ps. 18:28, where, however, the vb. is photizein)...the future of the covenant people is radiant with light and life (cf. 36:9...), while that of the godless is dark...”

“Apart from natural phenomena, light is used in Scripture of...the favor of God, Ps. 4:6..; the illuminating power of the Scriptures, Ps. 119:105; and of the judgments and commandments of God..; the guidance of God, Ps. 112:4, etc.” (Hogg and Vine)

Anderson states: “'Light' ('or) is a frequent symbol of blessedness and life (6:13), or of Yahweh himself (27:1)...'Light' can be symbolic of all that is good (56:13, 97:11)...'in thy light' [in 36:9] may mean 'to live', as in Job 3:16; Ps. 49:19, and it may refer to a full and satisfying life; Dahood, as might be expected, sees here a reference to the reward of eternal life...It brings to mind (by implicit contrast) also the other possibility: the Sheol existence in the land of gloom and deep darkness (Job 10:21).”

The above examples only begin to hit the highlights regarding what the Psalms have to say on this subject. But for those who want to dive deeper in a more systematic manner, the following provides a more or less complete list of Psalm passages which specifically mention the subject of light:

Psalms 4:6; 13:3; 18:28; 19:8; 27:1; 31:16; 36:9; 43:3; 46:5; 49:19; 56:13; 67:1-2; 74:16; 76:4; 77:18; 90:17; 97:4, 11; 104:2; 105:39; 112:4; 119:105, 130, 135; 139:11-12

THE UNITY OF I CORINTHIANS 15

I would seem obvious, but I have found over the years that not all those carefully studying the Bible realize that one of the first things one should do, whenever possible, is to determine the limits of each separate section in a given book. Otherwise, one may either mix together entirely separate subjects the the author is discussing, or even worse, leave hanging certain questions that are answered a little later in the same passage. In one of my previous posts I alluded to a small church I visited years ago in which they considered each individual verse as a stand-alone idea having nothing at all to do with the verses preceding or following it. That latter approach especially is just plain nonsense.

As a typical test case, consider Chapter 15 of Paul's First Letter to the Corinthians. Factors leading to the conclusion that the chapter divisions devised during the Middle Ages were at least in this case well drawn are listed below.

Thematic Unity: The overall theme of resurrection is the most obvious unifying factor in these verses. By contrast, I Corinthians 14 deals with sign gifts such as speaking in tongues, and Chapter 16 wraps up the whole letter with a miscellany of closing subjects. Such a drastic change in subjects, however, is not always present in the Bible. So sometimes one must look for other clues for guidance.

Symbolic Numbers:

The key word “dead” appears exactly seven times in the whole of I Corinthians, all in this particular chapter. One of main symbolic meanings of the number “seven” in both the Old and New Testaments is something which is complete or perfect, subtly indicating in this case that Christ was completely, perfectly and absolutely dead physically when He was laid in the tomb.

Similarly, the verb “raise” in the perfect tense is found within I Corinthians only in Chapter 15, where it also occurs seven times. And the resurrection of Christ marked the “completion” of His earthly ministry.

Inclusions: This word, often appearing in the scholarly literature in its Greek form 'inclusio,' indicates a very common technique utilized by biblical writers to indicate the borders of a given passage. They accomplish this by repeating words or concepts at the conclusion which began the passage in the first place. In the case of I Corinthians 15, one can actually point to three such pairs.

First of all, there is a thematic inclusio in this chapter with v. 2 talking about the importance of the Corinthians standing and holding firm and v. 58 with its exhortation to be steadfast and immovable. Secondly, Fee notes that Paul “with a marvelous stroke of genius” ends this chapter much as he began it: he first wonders if his labor with them has been in vain (vv. 1-2) but concludes that “in the Lord, your labor is not in vain (15:58b).” And lastly, there is the address “brothers” in verses 1 and 58.

Repeated Words or Concepts: Even if these do not not appear specifically (a) at the limits of the passage or (b) a symbolic number of times, they may be a tip-off that one is still within the same general thought of the author. In addition, they may be helpful in identifying sub-sections within a larger passage. Within our subject chapter, we see the following verbal and thematic repetitions (as a complete aside, have you ever noticed that “repetition” itself repeats the letter pair ti?):

    “kingdom” – vv. 24 and 50

    contrasts between the first and last Adam in vv. 20-22 and 45-49

    other uses of “brothers” as an address – vv. 31, 50

    other appearances of “in vain” – vv. 10, 14a, 14b, 17

    references to different writings or popular sayings – vv. 32b, 33, 45, 54-55

“Christ Jesus our Lord” (31) – “our Lord Jesus Christ” (57) Notice how the three elements of these references are given in reversed order at their second appearance. This technique is often used in the Bible to indicate an inclusio for a section or sub-section of text.

    “proclaim(ed)” – vv. 1, 11, 12, 14

    the combination of “sin” and “death” – vv. 3, 16-17, 56. The first and last of these could be included with the other three inclusions given above or just considered as a near inclusio.

    Paul mentions his hard labor for the Lord – vv. 8-11 and 31-32

    Conditional sentences and questions beginning with or containing an “if” clause – vv. 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 29, 32a, 32b

Introduction to a New Subject: Even within I Corinthians 15 there is at least one such indication given. That appears with v. 35 after the discussion of the very existence of the resurrection has been established by Paul. He then transitions into the topic of the nature of the resurrection with two hypothetical questions: “But someone will ask, 'How are the dead raised? With what kind of body do they come?'”

Symmetrical Structure: Very often the various repeated topics and vocabulary, as well as obvious indications of introductory and concluding words, will all come together in a cohesive manner to show how the authors of biblical works organized their material. Let us see if the bits and pieces of information given above can show us if that ubiquitous phenomenon can be found in this present case.

                                    Figure 1: The Organization of I Corinthians 15

I. Introductory Exhortation (vv. 1-2)

        II. The Reality of the Resurrection (vv. 3-34)

                III. Question Posed and Addressed (vv. 3-7; 12-19)

                        [Autobiographical Note (vv. 8-11)]

                                IV. First and Last Adam (vv. 20-22)

                                        V. Allusion to OT texts (vv. 23-29)

                        [Autobiographical Note (vv. 30-32a)]

                                                VI. Poetic Citations (vv. 32b-33)

                                                        VII. Closing Exhortation (v. 34)

        II'. The Nature of the Resurrection (vv. 35-57)

                III'. Question Posed and Addressed (vv. 35-44)

                                IV'. First and Last Adam (vv. 45-49)

                                        V'. Allusion to an OT Text (vv. 50-54a)

                                                VI'. Poetic Citation (54b-55)

                                                        VII'. Closing Thanks (v. 56)

I'. Concluding Exhortation (v. 58)

As you can see from Figure 1, there is almost complete parallelism between the two major sections of this chapter, with the sole exception of the two autobiographical notices. One could even speculate that Paul perhaps inserted these sometime before distributing the letter widely in order to make this section a little more personal in nature.

 

THE MANY FACES OF KING SOLOMON

The Old Testament History Books

I Kings The historical books of the Old Testament are very even-handed and realistic in the portrayals of their “heroes,” to the point where some scholars even deny that there are any true heroes in the Bible, save God Himself. Thus, when we come to the main events in King Solomon's life in I Kings we get about as close as we ever will get to a realistic, three-dimensional, warts-and-all view of what he was really like.

On the plus side, he is seen to have his priorities straight when he asks God to give him an understanding heart (I Kings 3:5-7). This is followed up by the well-known story of his wise decision given over the correct ownership of a baby disputed by two prostitutes (I Kings 3:16ff). Of course, the wisdom literature of the Old Testament is in large part attributed to him, as reflected in the comments given in I Kings 4. Finally, Solomon proved to be a financial genius who accumulated great wealth for Israel through advantageous trading partnerships, as reflected in I Kings 9-10.

But there is a very dark side also: Solomon had Adonijah killed when he requested the hand of David's last female companion Abishag (I Kings 2:25); he established tax districts in Israel and demanded exorbitant amounts of money from the people for support of his court (I Kings 4:7); he recruited citizens into forced labor for his building projects (I Kings 5:13ff); he handed over twenty cities in Galilee to his friend King Hiram (I Kings 9:10ff) to secure a loan from him; he lived a much more lavish lifestyle than his father David, as reflected in I Kings 10 while, as Hubbard says, “Israelites did not profit uniformly.” But, of course, his greatest flaw, as pointed out by Hubbard and many others, was the harem of foreign wives Solomon accumulated. “Marrying foreign wives was expedient politically, but not spiritually. The historian does not chide Solomon for sensuality but for disobedience to Israel's monotheistic ideal. Foreign marriages brought foreign religions, and the king compromised the convictions which he had expressed in his dedicatory prayer for the Temple (I Ki. viii. 23,27) by engaging in syncretistic worship to placate his wives.”

II Chronicles By carefully comparing the parallel accounts in I Kings and II Chronicles, we can see how the Chronicler has subtly changed Solomon's portrait. II Chronicles 2:17-18 has Solomon only forcing non-Jews living in the land into forced labor, not Jewish citizens; he deletes the fact that Solomon had married Pharaoh's daughter in I Kings 7:8; and the Chronicler throughout his account emphasizes the roles of the priests and Levites to a much greater extent than is found in I Kings. But by far the most telling omission made by the Chronicler is to totally delete the statements in I Kings 11 regarding Solomon's apostasy and the enemies God raised up against him in his final years. In other words, the Chronicler seems determined to whitewash the King's personal character simply because at least he built the Temple, all important to the welfare of the priests and Levites.

As Myers says, “The writer has in mind two things as he proceeds with his account of Solomon: (a) the fact that Yahweh had blessed him beyond parallel and (b) that his interest in the temple – religious institution – must not be obscured by other matters however important. That is why he disposes of the other matters pertaining to Solomon's kingdom so quickly.”

Old Testament Poetry Books

Psalm 127 Most people don't realize that one of the psalms is actually attributed to Solomon. It falls into two parts. In verses 1-2 we have the memorable statement: “Unless the LORD builds the house, those who build it labor in vain.” That could refer to the building of the Temple by Solomon. Also, it is noteworthy that the three-fold phrase “in vain” in these verses is even more familiar to readers as the repeated statement found in Ecclesiastes “Vanity, vanity, all is vanity.”

Then in verses 3-5 we have a statement which would be even more at home in the Book of Proverbs: “Sons are a heritage from the LORD...like arrows in the hand of a warrior are the sons of one youth.”

Old Testament Wisdom Books

In keeping with the historical picture of Solomon as the epitome of a wise man (at least in his earlier years), he is listed as the putative author of the Wisdom Books. However, even conservative OT scholars admit that this may be a convenient fiction. Thus, it is a very complicated question as to whether Solomon was the author, historical subject, fictional subject of these books; a combination thereof; or whether these books were just written in his honor.

Proverbs Books I, II, and IV of this compilation each begin with the statement that they were proverbs of King Solomon, Son of David. So the conservative approach says there is no real reason to doubt that fact. But, unfortunately, even if that is true, there is really no biographical information regarding Solomon's life found in these sections. We must also keep in mind that Book III (chapters 23-24) contains a miscellany of material which does not necessarily originate from Solomon himself. And the same can certainly be said concerning Proverbs 30-31.

Ecclesiastes Although Solomon is never actually stated to be the author of this book, the opening words certainly were meant to imply that fact: “The words of the preacher [Qoheleth], the son of David, king in Jerusalem.” In the first nine chapters of this book we certainly get the kind of nuanced picture of Solomon that we found in II Kings. Qoheleth tries a number of different approaches to living a fulfilled life, but he admits after each each attempt that it is all “vanity and a striving after the wind.”

Nonetheless, the book is punctuated by more positive statements (which some scholars feel were added by pious scholars at a later date to make the book more acceptable to the reader) declaring that the author decided to just enjoy all the things God gives him on earth while remembering that they will all pass away and that there will come an inevitable time of judgment.

In that manner, as Seow concludes in an essay exhaustively comparing this book with similar royal proclamations of surrounding cultures, “Qohelet's imitation of the genre is poignant in its irony. In the end the text makes the point that none of the deeds – even the royal deeds that are assiduously preserved in memorials – really matters. For human beings, even kings, there is no immortality of any sort...The legendary acts, wealth, and wisdom of Solomon turned out not to have abiding significance after all. The genre of a royal inscription is utilized to make the point about the ephemerality of wisdom and human accomplishments.”

The Song of Solomon (Song of Songs) The role of the king in this book is even a harder question to answer than in the above two wisdom books since it is totally unclear if Solomon is supposed to be the author, is in fact the author, Solomon is masquerading as a poor man, he is the hero who appears in his love's eyes as glorious as Solomon, or whether he might be the hero's rival for the affections of the woman in the poems. Each commentator has his or her own take on the situation. Thus, it is impossible with any degree of certainty to say what kind of picture of Solomon we are meant to see here.

The Apocrypha

There is one book in the Apocryphal writings ascribed to Solomon. It is called simply Wisdom in the Catholic canon, and Wisdom of Solomon by Protestants. It is supposedly written in the first person by Solomon himself, although few scholars of any denomination would ascribe the book to him. As Dentan states, “For dramatic purposes it is written in the form of an essay by King Solomon, but the disguise is a transparent one, and it is doubtful that it was ever intended to be taken seriously. From early times, it was recognized as pseudonymous.”
Nevertheless, it is interesting for our present purposes as demonstrating another view of that early king of Israel, especially in the more supposedly autobiographical comments found in chapters 6-7. These chapters serve as an introduction to the extended poem in praise to wisdom which follows. Solomon begins by addressing other kings and judges of the earth and urging them to acquire wisdom above all else if they want to rule as wisely as he has. And then he warns them that if they don't do so, God's judgment will fall on them – good advice that the historical Solomon would have been well to heed himself.

Then in chapter 7, “Solomon” starts out by saying that he began as all kings do as a baby. However, he prayed for wisdom and God gave it to him. Again, unlike the historical figure, he states that he really cared very little for riches or prestige, but only for wisdom. Then he brags that (with God's grace) he came to know all there was concerning the physical world, including the “secret” things. This is quite at odds with the more humble picture of Solomon we get in the Book of Ecclesiastes.

The New Testament

Considering the great importance Solomon is given in the OT, it is perhaps surprising that, other than in genealogical listings, he is virtually ignored in the NT writings. In fact, though that king is featured in two of Jesus' sayings, they are both rather backhanded compliments to the greatness of Solomon since that figure is only used to highlight something which is even greater in comparison.

Matthew 6:29 // Luke 12:27

This is the famous saying of Christ in which he states that even Solomon in all his glory couldn't begin to compare to the sight of a field of wildflowers in bloom. “All in all...tradition remembered Solomon for the great prosperity which marked his reign, and for his 'wisdom,' rather than for his piety. When later kings were measured according to a spiritual standard, the yardstick of judgment was always the life of David (II Kings 16:2; 18:3; II Chron. 17:3; 28:1; 29:2; etc.) never that of Solomon.” (Hendricksen)

Matthew 12:42; Luke 11:31

Similarly, these parallel passages allude to Solomon's great wisdom, but then put it into perspective by comparing it to the wisdom of Jesus. Geldenhuys explains: “The queen of the south (I Kings x) came from the uttermost ends of the world as known at that time, and spared no trouble or expense in order to listen to the wisdom of Solomon given to him by God, and she believed the report she had heard of him. But most of the Jews who saw Jesus, who is immeasurably greater than Solomon, in spite of all their privileges did not listen to Him with the desire for salvation, but rejected Him in their unbelief. So the queen of the south will on the day of judgment justly condemn them as people who neglected and abused such incomparable opportunities.”

Pseudepigraphical Writings

Finally, there were later books utilizing the name of Solomon, but with only the slightest pretense of being taken as genuine works of him. Two such spurious productions are described briefly below.

Psalms of Solomon

These share their greatest similarity with the authentic OT psalms, especially the psalms of petition for help in time of need. However, the contents reveal that the author is crying to God for aid at a time when Jerusalem is being attacked by her enemies due to the people's great sin, which has been hidden from Solomon. That alone should make one suspicious for two reasons: (1) In the Bible, Solomon was said to have knowledge of all things, including those completely hidden from sight, and (2) There was no such sacking of Jerusalem during Solomon's reign. Instead, it is the concensus opinion that this document was obviously written concerning the time of General Pompey's military actions in the Near East and Jerusalem in particular in 63 BC.

W.N. Guthrie notes, “These psalms had an important position and were widely circulated in the early Church. They are frequently referred to in the various codexes and histories of the first few centuries of the Christian Era.”

Odes of Solomon

Even more spurious are these poetic works, which have absolutely no connection with the historical Solomon. Only portions of this ancient document have been uncovered, and it appears to be an Aramaic translation of a Greek original. Its purely Christian origin is betrayed by its references to the Holy Spirit hovering over the Messiah, mention of the Incarnation, a chapter in which Christ Himself is the speaker, the virgin birth is confirmed, the sign of the cross appears, the Virgin Mary exhorts the people, there is an allusion to Christ walking on the water

 

CORRECTING ERRANT CHRISTIAN BROTHERS AND SISTERS

Let me introduce this subject by citing some appropriate words from Gordon Wenham relating to Numbers 3:40-51: “In the principle that the servant Levites redeem the first-born Israelites, Christians may see an anticipation of Jesus the great suffering servant who redeemed his people. This chapter's insistence that the Levites must prevent other Israelites from sinning by warning and, if necessary, killing encroachers anticipates New Testament challenges, particularly to elders to correct erring brethren.” Some examples of this latter duty are seen in Exodus 32:25-28 and Numbers 1:47-54. Wenham then lists a number of NT passages, all of which are given below with comments from various scholars. You will note that in these comments, I have purposely limited myself to those citations which help spell out both the real continuities and discontinuities of the NT teachings with those in the Old Testament.

Matthew 18:15ff “Matt 18:15-18 forms the well-known passage in church discipline. Here a procedure is outlined not just for confronting flagrant sinners, but for dealing with unresolved grievances...and if the sinner still refuses to change, then the church must proceed with putting that person out of fellowship (18:17b)...This punishment resembles the OT practice of cutting a person off from Israel's assembly (see, e.g. Gen. 17:4; Exod. 12:15,19; 30:33-38).” (Blomberg)

Acts 18:25-26 Marshall says in regard to these verses, “The 'way of the Lord' is OT language for the kind of conduct that the Lord requires of his people and hence for the teaching that describes it (Exod. 32:8; Deut. 5:33).”

Galatians 2:11ff Donald Guthrie says that “the food laws of Judaism were stringent, based on Levitical law. Segregation from Gentiles while eating was not because of any personal animosity toward the individual Gentiles concerned, but because of the fear of contamination by eating food forbidden under the law. It was, therefore, an essentially protective measure...But Christian liberty and fellowship were never intended to be shackled by ancient taboos...Peter's fear of the circumcision party seems to have outweighed entirely any consideration he may have had for the Gentile brethren...This is fitting reminder that Christian leadership always involves responsibility toward others...Paul considered a public remonstrance was essential, because of the basic principles involved.”

Galatians 6:1 Martyn: “Even though the reference ['a transgression of some sort'] is general – one might wonder how Paul thinks the Galatians will identify a specific transgression now they are no longer 'under the authority of the law' (5:18...). First he has already specified for them a list of representative effects of the Flesh. Now he emphasizes elements on that list that destroy community, such as a tendency constantly to compare oneself with others. Moreover, Paul thinks that the Spirit that builds community will provide criteria for identifying transgressions that destroy community.”

As to those who commit such transgressions, Martyn says, “The restoration, then, is to be completely devoid of lasting stigma. It is to be carried out with the gentleness that is one of the marks of the Spirit-led community...and also with circumspection. For as the next clause indicates, all are subject to missteps.”

1 Thessalonians 5:12-14

A few of Paul's many admonitions in these verses can be traced back to Old Testament teachings. For example, Malherbe states: “Paul's use of makrothymeisthe ('be patient') is influenced by Jewish usage. An insignificant word in nonbiblical Greek, it takes on a profound significance in the LXX [i.e. Greek Septuagint], where it describes God's relationship with his people. The basic passage in Exod 34:6 ('The Lord God, compassionate and merciful, patient [makrothymos] and full of pity')...becomes a refrain in later Jewish literature (e.g., Ps 102:8; Joel 2:13). In the Wisdom literature, it is also a quality of the wise man (Prov 16:32; 17:17; Sir 5:11).”

And regarding the phrase “encourage the fainthearted” in 5:14, Elias says, “Both encouragement and consolation may be included in this ministry. Again the problem comes at the point of determining the nature of the needs within this particular group. This word (literally, the small souled or simply the little people) appears nowhere else in the NT, but in the Septuagint it characterizes fearful or grieving people (Prov. 18:14; Isa. 35:4; 54:6)...Such people, the faint hearted, need the comfort of brothers and sisters who have caught on that, through Jesus' death and resurrection, believers can face both life and death with hope and joy (4:13-18; 5:10).”

I Timothy 5:19-20 “Probably as a result of heresy and its influence on some of the church leadership, Paul addresses the issue of due process in the examination and (if necessary) discipline of elders...Paul again draws on Mosaic legislation with a long history of acceptance in Judaism and in the church to ensure that due process is followed.” (Towner)

James 5:19-20 “It is debatable whether these verses refer to the restoration of a truly regenerate person or the conversion of an unregenerate one...Some have understood 'death' as a loss of communion or physical death (cf. 1C. 11:30), and there is no evidence that physical death was the regular punishment for backsliding.” (Carson) He goes on to explain that “the phrase 'cover a multitude of sins' in v. 20 “is evidently an allusion to Prov. 10:12, which is quoted more fully, but not exactly, in I Pet. 4:8...The meaning is that 'the soul is not merely saved out of death, not merely rescued from peril, but blessed, Ps. 32:1' (Knowling).”

DRUNKENNESS IN JEREMIAH

The figurative image of someone or something being drunken appears a number of times in the Book of Jeremiah. Below is what biblical commentators make of the passages in which it appears:

Jeremiah 13:13 Bright says that 'The scene here seems to be (as in Isa xxvii 7ff.) a drunken feast. The revelers use the proverb as a witticism; they are the jugs, and they mean to be filled with wine. Jeremiah's point is: Yahweh will fill them – with drunkenness (i.e. will rob them of ability to act), and will smash them like the jugs they joke about.”

Jeremiah 23:9 “Those under the influence of strong emotional or spiritual experiences are likened to those who are intoxicated...Jeremiah was 'like a drunken man, like a man overcome by wine, because of the Lord and his holy words' (Jer 23:9 NIV)...But by far the largest number of references to drunkenness occur in the Prophets as a metaphor of God's judgment. Babylon, Edom, Moab and Egypt are all caused to drink of the cup of Yahweh's judgment and to reel and stagger under the wine of God's wrath (Jer 25:15).” (Dictionary of Biblical Imagery)

Jeremiah 25:27 “The cup, described as containing divine judgment and wrath, is one which they have no choice but to drink. To drink from a cup handed to you by the Lord means accepting your lot, a metaphor frequently used in prophetic writings to describe the bitter end of the wicked.” (DBI)

Jeremiah 46:10 Payne states that “while ch. 46 in its written form was composed in the fourth year of Jehoiakim, which commenced in October 605 B.C. after the battle of Carchemesh (v. 2) between the forces of Egypt and Babylon, the prophet's opening verses 'view the scene on the eve of the battle'; and at this point Jeremiah says of the Egyptians, 'In the north by the river Euphrates they stumbled and have fallen' (v. 6), though it is the hand of Yahweh that will direct the human forces, when 'the sword shall drink its fill of their blood' (v. 19).” He further explains that this prophecy was fulfilled in 605 B.C. When Pharaoh Necho II was defeated by Nebuchadrezzar.

Unlike the other passages in this series, in this one the Hebrew root rwh is employed in place of the more common skr to convey the idea of drinking. Jenson and Olivier state: “The vb. appears only in OT poetic or prophetic books...its uses often carry metonymical significance, be satisfied or, refresh oneself, though the lexical sense seems limited to the meaning to be saturated (of things); sated (of beings) (cf. contexts where rwh parallels 'sb; eat fully, be satiated (usually of solid foods [Jer 31:14; 46:10...]...In Jer 46:10, the sword of Yahweh's retribution (against Egypt) is personified as eating (flesh) and drinking (blood) to the full...”

“Wine is mentioned frequently in Rev[elation]...In Rev. 14:10; 16:19; 19:15 it symbolizes the wrath of God, recalling OT imagery on wine and the cup of God's wrath (cf. Jer. 25:15f., 27f...).” (C. Brown)

Beale and McDonough similarly explain that in Revelation 17:6, “The metaphor of 'being drunk with blood' is developed from Isa. 34:5-7; 49:26; Jer. 46:10, where it describes God's judgment of the wicked. The imagery is applied now in reverse manner to show that Babylon will be punished by means of its own sin, as 16:6 reveals.”

Jeremiah 48:26 “The imagery of drunkenness is another well-known OT picture. It is often associated with drinking of the cup of Yahweh's wrath which makes men stagger...The picture of a drunken man doubled over by vomiting is both disgusting and likely to provoke derision. Once Moab had laughed at Israel as she drank the cup of Yahweh's wrath, regarding her as a laughingstock and treating her as a thief who has been punished. The tables are turned. Moab is an object of derision as she must flee from her cities and go live in places of refuge in the high mountains.” (Thompson)

Jeremiah 51:7 “The metaphor of drunkenness [in Revelation 14:8] comes from Jer 51:7-8...The intoxicating madness here appears to result from the terror of Babylon's oppressive measures (so also in Heb. 2:15-16). This is borne out by Jer. 25:15-16, which also is included in John's allusion...This imagery [i.e. in Rev. 14:10] is inspired especially by the wording of Ps. 75:8; Jer. 25:15; 51:7, all three of which are grouped together and applied by Jewish exegetical tradition to the wicked who will 'drink in the time to come'...” (Beale and McDonough)

Jeremiah 51:39

D.R. Jones comments on this verse by stating: “The idea of making drunk with the contents of the cup of wrath is taken up in 51:7. Babylon who made 'all the earth drunken' is to be subject to her own treatment...Repeated in v. 57.”

Jeremiah 51:57 D.R. Jones refers back to Jeremiah 51:39 “which must be the background to this verse, since it continues with the same 'sleep a perpetual sleep and not wake.'”

The historical background of this verse is explained by Biddle: “The doubts raised by the destruction of the Temple should be allayed by God's assurance of certain punishment for Babylon, which desecrated the holy places.”

 Thompson adds: “In terms of human personnel, when the destroyers marched on Babylon the warriors would be captured and their weapons of war destroyed. The symbolism of the cup of wrath of Yahweh appears again. Princes and wise men would be made drunk and governors, prophets, and warriors would sleep the sleep of death.”

Concluding Comments Jenson brings together several of the above passages to tie up this discussion: “In general, the ANE [i.e. Ancient Near Eastern] texts regard drunkenness as a relatively harmless matter and lack the perception of its moral and religious danger evident in many biblical passages...The prophets use drunkenness as a metaphor for the effects of God's wrath on Israel or the nations. Like a drunk, a judged nation is a figure of derision (Jer 48:26), helpless to defend itself (51:39, 57) and subject to irrational strife (13:12-14) and loss of control (Prov 20:1; Isa 19:14; 29:9; cf. Jer 23:9). God will compel the nations to experience the shame of drunkenness by making them drink the cup of wrath (Jer 25:27-29). The cup is given a historical identity and a fearful military reality in Jer 51:7, where Babylon is named the gold cup in the Lord's hand.”

I can think of two good reasons why Jeremiah 46:10 utilizes a different Hebrew word for the concept of drinking and drunkenness than the other seven passages do. In the first place, it is the only one of the eight passages in which the drunkenness or satiation does not refer to a human being.

But just as likely is the probability that a purposefully different word is employed so that there will only be seven passages in which the Hebrew root skr appears. That is significant since “seven” in the Bible is always symbolic of completion or perfection (Thus, the people mentioned in these verses will be absolutely and completely overcome.) I could cite several other OT and NT books in which this same phenomenon occurs.

 

JOSHUA 14

There is some some controversy as where to start this section since verses 13:32-33 act as a swing passage both summarizing the preceding land distributions and introducing the next major section which ends at 14:5 dealing with the position of the Levites.  We can recognize that division by the way it is bounded at both ends with similar statements:

        “But to the tribe of Levi Moses gave no inheritance” (13:33)

        “But to the Levites he gave no inheritance among them” (14:3)

        “No portion was given the Levites in the land” (14:4)

The next major literary unit is similarly bracketed by another repeated phrase:

        “Caleb son of Jephunneh the Kenizzite” (14:6)

        “Caleb son of Jephunneh” (14:13)

        “Caleb son of Jephunneh the Kenezzite” (14:14)

Note the literary similarity between these two sections in that the concluding phrases in each are repeated in adjacent verses. I should also point out that the final statement “And the land had rest from war” also concluded an earlier section in the book at 11:21-23.

The following more specific comments from the literature lean heavily on several anonymous articles in The Dictionary of Biblical Imagery.

Joshua 14:2 Howard says, “The land is seen as God's gift to Israel over and over again, especially in Deuteronomy. In Joshua, the concept appears over fifty times. As a gift of God, it never belongs absolutely to Israel: it belongs to God...The dividing of the land by lot further indicates that it was at God's disposal (Num. 26:55-56; Josh. 14:2; 18:1-10)...”

Younger notes that, “Ironically, it was the fear of these very Anakim that caused Israel's disobedience and failure at Kadesh-barnea according to Num. 13:28 and Deuteronomy 1.28.”

Joshua 14:3-4 Woudstra: “Starting from the basic figure of the twelve-tribe arrangement, these verses explain the relationship between the 2-1/2 tribes east of the Jordan and the 9-1/2 west of the river. Apparently it was necessary to make even more clear that which was obvious from the preceding chapter (13:7-8). Special concern is shown to emphasize that the tribes on the east side of the Jordan indeed did belong to Israel.”

Joshua 14:7 Gray explains that “forty is the conventional indefinite number in Semitic folklore. It indicates a man in his prime...Caleb's age at this point is given as eighty-five (v. 10).”

Joshua 14:8 “The image of melting is most commonly used in the Bible to describe the effects of fear...The result of this breakdown is often terror: 'our hearts melted and no courage remained in any man' (Josh 2:11 NASB; cf. Josh 5:1; 7:5; 14:8...).” (DBI)

Joshua 14:9 DBI: “Ideally, parents...provide a homeland (Josh 14:9; Jer 30:20; Acts 7:5). It is their great sense of responsibility that prompts their continued quest for the Promised Land.” One might easily extend that principle today in order to state that it is a parent's grave responsibility to prepare their children for their eventual Heavenly Home.

“In ancient Near Eastern iconography we find images of enemies under a footstool, beneath the feet of the reigning king...This image seems to carry the connotation of shaming the enemy (to direct the soles of the foot toward someone was a shaming action) and treading on them in a manner that lays claim to them, perhaps analogous to walking over their territory (Josh 1:3; 14:9; Ps 8:6).” (DBI)

Joshua 14:10 See comment on v. 7.

Joshua 14:11 “Several biblical characters are exceptions to these transformations [accompanying old age] and become powerful images:...Moses and Caleb, who remain strong in old age (Deut 34:7; Josh 14:11). But these are exceptions, and the biblical norm is that one's later years are marked by decline.” (DBI)

Another author in that same source states that “the basic rhythm of life is encapsulated in a biblical merism (the rhetorical device of naming opposites with the implication that everything between them is also included) that speaks of 'going out' and 'coming in' (Josh 14:11, etc).”

Joshua 14:12-13 Butler says, “The Anakim are connected to the primeval wicked giants, the Nephilim (Num 13:33; cf. Gen 6:4...). They are particularly tied to Hebron (Num 13:22,28). Here is another step on the way to fulfillment of the divine promise to destroy these enemies (Deut 9:2...). For Caleb that destruction depends only on the divine promise...The blessing [in v. 13] represents a promise for steady continued success over a long period of time, not just in one particular moment or event...In this case the blessing is for the work of Caleb and his descendants in Hebron.” As Paul puts it in Romans 8:31, “If God is with us, who is against us.”

Joshua 14:14 “Also ironically [see comment on v. 2 above], this prime example of Judahite success is accomplished by a non-Israelite: Caleb is a Kenizzite (14:14) who is, however, ultimately incorporated into Judah's genealogy (1 Chr 2:9,18).” (Younger)

Joshua 14:15 “The idea of rest for the entire nation from their enemies is found in such passages as Deuteronomy 12:10 and 25:19, and it is echoed in summarizing passages in Joshua 21:44 and 23:1. In two places, we read that the land itself had rest from war (11:23; 14:15; cf. Deut 12:9-10; 25:19; 2 Sam. 7:1,11; 1 Kings 8:56). That anticipates the same idea repeated several times in Judges: 'And the land had rest____years” (3:11; 3:30; 5:31; 8:28).” (Howard)