WHO WROTE ECCLESIASTES?

                        Much Study (2010) collage

This is perhaps the most contentious issue regarding biblical authorship that one is likely to run into, and the opinions of scholars range all over the map. Some otherwise conservative scholars are found to be surprisingly open-minded on this subject, while there is also the rare liberal commentator who is unexpectedly non-committal regarding authorship. So the best I can do is to quote from some of these sources and let you decide for yourself whether Solomon wrote the book. I will wait till the end before quoting from those few scholars who still feel King Solomon was the sole author of Ecclesiastes.

Pseudonymous Authorship

Longman states, “Even conservative commentators...reject the tradition of Solomonic authorship. The connection between Qohelet and Solomon is instead recognized as a literary fiction on the part of the writer of the book...” And elsewhere Longman says, “Increasingly, commentators have recognized two voices in the book. In Ecclesiastes 1:12-12:7, Qohelet speaks in the first person; In Ecclesiastes 1:1-11; 12:8-14 someone else (often called the frame narrator or second wise teacher) speaks about Qohelet to his son...”

“To disguise the identity of an actual king by naming him 'Qohelet' ['teacher] is one thing, but to refer to him as 'son of David, king in Jerusalem' (Eccles 1:1) when he was not is problematic for some interpreters, although it need not be, since there is no reason to assume that adopting a literary persona is an act of deception...It simply means that the main character of the book is referred to as Qohelet for reasons which still elude interpreters to this day.” (Enns)

Shields discusses the pros and cons regarding the identity of Qohelet with Solomon. He concludes: “The fact that Qohelet is never explicitly identified with Solomon suggests that the association exists to serve a purpose other than outright identification. And the most recognized reason for the association is to establish the authority and integrity of Qohelet's wisdom.”

J.G. Williams points out that the meaning of the Hebrew title of the book, Qohelet, is not quite clear. But interestingly, it “is a feminine participle, a form of the root that occurs nowhere else in the Old Testament. The odd use of the feminine gender, together with the fact that the term is associated with Solomon (though without naming him; see 1:1, 12), suggests the author wanted his work to be recognized as part of Israel's Wisdom tradition but not taken literally as the wisdom of Solomon.”

“In reconstructing his moral vision., Qoheleth critically engages traditional sources: wisdom teachings, Torah, Solomonic traditions, as well as other ancient Near Eastern literature...Under the guise of the wise king par excellence, he sets out on an ambitious program to investigate 'all that is done under heaven' (1:13).” (E.P. Lee)

Childs states, “Commentators have made much of the superscription's belonging to a final redactional stage and being dependent upon 1.12. ...Still the more difficult question, and of primary importance, is to determine the function of the title. Why is the author identified with Koheleth, and yet immediately described in a way which is only appropriate to Solomon?...The traditional biblical profile of Solomon is clearly reflected which is portrayed in such passages as I Kings 5.26ff; 10.23.ff., II Chron. 1.7ff., and Song of Songs 8.12ff. To suggest that the book is actually pseudegraphic and that an attempt was made to acquire an authoritative status by ascribing it to Solomon runs into a variety of problems. First, the name of Solomon is never used, which is without parallel if a claim for authorship were intended. Secondly, the fiction of Koheleth as a pseudonym for Solomon is clearly abandoned within the book itself (8.22ff.; 10.16f.; 12.9ff.). It seems much more likely, therefore, to suppose that the picture of Koheleth as Solomon served another purpose. In its canonical form the identification assures the reader that the attack on wisdom which Ecclesiastes contains is not to be regarded as the personal idiosyncrasy of a nameless teacher. Rather, by his speaking in the guise of Solomon.., his attack on wisdom was assigned an authoritative role as the final reflections of Solomon. As the source of Israel's wisdom, his words serve as a official corrective from within the wisdom tradition itself. Once this point was made, the literary fiction of Solomon was dropped.”

Bullock: “Although the name Solomon does not appear anywhere in the book, he was the only son of David who was also king in Jerusalem...three times he referred to his position in Jerusalem in relation to his predecessors (1:16; 2:7,9). The implication is that he had been preceded by a relatively large group of kings, which was certainly not true of Solomon. W.F. Albright proposed that melek might be emended to molek or mallok ('counselor'), necessitating only vowel changes. This would, of course, alleviate the problem of Solomonic authorship, since it would mean that the author was possibly a descendant of David who was an official in Jerusalem but not king.”

Bullock goes on with additional arguments:

1. Even Martin Luther attributed the book to the later sage Jesus Ben Sirach.

2. “Although injustice and oppressive politics were evident in Solomon's reign (I Kings 12:2-4), Qoheleth, if he were Solomon, seemed impotent to do anything about the injustice (e.g., 3:16; 4:1; 5:8).”

3. “The phrase 'king in Jerusalem' (1:1) does not occur elsewhere as a designation for Solomon.”

Bullock concludes by pointing out, “We should distinguish between impersonation as literary form and literary forgery. The latter occurs when the author makes a conscious effort to conceal his own identity and write under the name of an ancient worthy in order to win an immediate hearing and esteem for his work. Impersonation as a literary form, in comparison, has no such motivation, but seeks to recapture a certain spirit represented by a historical person and to speak through his spirit...What he had to say, and the context from which he said it, both qualified for representation by a man of such wealth and opportunity as Solomon.”

Solomonic Authorship

Despite the above arguments, there are still some scholars who staunchly defend King Solomon as the author of Ecclesiastes. For example, Walter Kaiser, Jr. has this to say: “The well-known conservative scholar of the nineteenth century, Franz Delitzsch, declared in a much-quoted opinion, 'If the book of Koheleth were of old Solomonic origin, then there is no history to the Hebrew language.' However, Fredericks devoted a careful inspection of all the linguistic arguments for dating the book late and concluded that they were all unpersuasive.The other approach to show that the book is late is to try to show affinities in thought between Hellenistic thought and Ecclesiastes....but this method also has been beset by problems.”

Ellul attacks one key argument of critics, namely the presence of contradictory voices which betrays the hand of multiple authorship of the book. These critics say, “How could a king criticize royal power?” But Ellul's reply is, “These scholars betray their ignorance of the many historical writings of those who exercised power and yet attacked it energetically.”

Kaiser notes that many evangelical scholars have challenged the view that Solomon wrote the book (see above as a sampling]. “But much of that was on the strength of the allegedly late language and concepts.” However, due to Fredericks' study, “it is worth looking at the idea of Solomonic authorship one more time.” And as far as the objection mentioned by others that the author compared himself in Ecclesiastes 1:16 favorably to all other kings of Jerusalem preceding him, Kaiser responds that there were at least two earlier Canaanite kings over that city (see Genesis 14:18 and Joshua 10:1). His cinching argument is to compare five passages in Ecclesiastes where the author's life parallels that of Solomon as described in I Kings.

David George Moore (who happens to be a friend of mine) presents a fair view of the arguments adduced by opponents of Solomonic authorship before giving his own judgment on the matter. “Some argue that an anonymous preacher (Qoheleth) wrote the book. Various reasons are given to bolster this claim. One is that the Bible does not record Solomon as having repented. Also, using the word teacher was a literary device of ancient Jewish authors to call themselves 'Solomon' in order to preserve their own anonymity and to declare their 'indebtedness to their teacher and model, the ideal wise man' (Kreeft). There is also some textual evidence for someone other than Solomon authoring Ecclesiastes in 1:12. In this verse the perfect tense is used which would suggest that Solomon was no longer king. This would make room for a later writer to have compiled the book. Tremper Longman offers a number of other compelling reasons for the non-Solomonic authorship of Ecclesiastes.”
But despite the above, Moore still feels that Solomon is likely to be the author of the book. He says, besides citing Kaiser approvingly: “First, the notion that the Scriptures do not record Solomon as having repented can certainly be contested. Specifically, Ecclesiastes 2:1-11 could possibly be viewed as a statement of repentance. Second, the requirements of being 'son of David, king in Jerusalem' (1:1) points to Solomon. Third, parallels between 1 Kings and Ecclesiastes fit the life of Solomon... Furthermore, ancient Jewish tradition held to Solomonic authorship...as did Patristic tradition.”

Moore also offers some valuable cautions to those investigating this matter, including:

    “More humility is called for when it comes to the tools of biblical scholarship.”

    “We must always keep in mind that all of us are 'subjects,' so it is impossible to be totally objective!”

    “Not surprisingly, modern scholars are many times guilty of making the text of Scripture say what they want it to say.”

    “The idea of editors (redactors) working on Ecclesiastes before reaching its final form is also a popular notion. Some claim that Ecclesiastes contains much contradictory material – but wouldn't redactors smooth those over?”

    “The ambiguity of the evidence suggests that the wise conclusion is a healthy dose of agnosticism when it comes to dating Ecclesiastes.”

 

TOHU WABOHU (GENESIS 1:2)

 

Tohu wabohu (Genesis 1:2)

There is an interesting rhyming pair found in this second verse of the Bible. It is a combination of two Hebrew words: (1) bohu, meaning emptiness and only found in Genesis 1:2; Jeremiah 4:23; and Isaiah 34:11 where it is always paired with (2) tohu, which can be variously translated as confusion, empty, nothing, nought, vanity, waste, wilderness, vain, or without form. That latter Hebrew word is much more common in the Bible, appearing some twenty times.

The problem with English translations is to somehow convey both the idea of a wordplay while accurately preserving the meaning of both words. Calling the world 'topsy-turvy' or 'uniformly unformed” might give an idea of the former while not really accomplishing the latter.

Schnittjer alludes to this word pair several times in his book on intertextual references within the Old Testament:

“He labels Jeremiah 4:23-28 as 'anti-creation' and says, “Both Jeremiah and his contemporary Zephaniah in different ways rewind the narrative tradition regarding the days of creation. The direct veerbal relationship and reversed storyline by these two prophets suggest they know of the narrative in the opening of Genesis.”

“Jeremiah excels at interpretive theological inversion. He uses scriptural allusions to reverse creation and divine omniscience and to make even the most famous intercessors ineffective (4:23-28; 12:4; 15:1).”

“The term tohu only appears twice in Torah. It has the sense of 'formless' in Gen 1:2 and 'barrren' in Deut 32:10. Elsewhere the term shows up eighteen times, including once in an anti-creational judgment context (Jer 4:23).”

Michael Coogan says, “The Hebrew word tohu is generally translated in two ways. It can denote the arid wilderness, where wadis disappear (Job 6.18), the deranged wander (Job 12.24; cf. Isa. 40.23), and Israel was found (Deut 32.10). It can also mean the chaotic state before creation (Job 26.7); in this sense it can be paired with bohu (Gen.1.2; Isa. 34:11; Jer. 4.23) and by extension can mean any empty, formless reality, especially other gods (1 Sam. 12.21; Isa. 41.29; 44.9), or defeated nations (Isa. 24.10; 34.11; 40.17). These two concepts are linked in biblical tradition (Isa. 45.18) and in underlying mythology.”

Konkel goes into more detail in discussing these two related words. Below are just a few of his comments:

“An attempt has been made to trace tohu and bohu to an Egyptian derivation; as in the Egyptian concept, Chaos would indicate the unending existence of the original divinities. The nom. bohu may also be compared to the Phoen. goddess Baau or to the Babylonian mother goddess Bau. The derivation of both bohu and tohu is unknown.”

“Isaiah juxtaposes the two in the judgment against Edom (Isa 34:11) to describe the total depopulation and destruction of the land so it is a waste fit only for desert animals. The measuring line of tohu will be stretched over Edom, and the stone of bohu. Unfortunately the text of the last line is corrupt, as it lacks a vb., and the last word (its nobles) in the MT [i.e. Hebrew text] is wrongly assigned to v. 12. As a result the second metaphor is not clear; the stone could be that used to cast lots or used as a level. The general sense of the metaphors is not in doubt. Stretching a measuring line over the land means that as an ownerless plot of ground, the land is to be resurveyed and reassigned; the threat of judgment against Jerusalem is that the measuring line of Samaria will be cast over it (2 Kgs 21:13), meaning that it will be taken over by foreigners.”

“The term tohu is common in the vocabulary of creation. Its function is to indicate chaos in contrast to the order of creation. So Isaiah says that the world was not made a wasteland, God made it to be inhabited (Isa 45:18). The reversal of this creation is announced in the opening of the 'little apocalypse' (Isa 24-27), in which the 'city of chaos' is described as shattered (24:10). The devastation of the earth is described in terms reminiscent of those of the prophet Hosea over Israel (cf. 24:4; Hos 4:3). It is only natural that the material originally used to describe the judgment of Israel should be transferred, with little alteration, to that of universal judgment. This same type of terminology is found in Jer 4:28, in a passage that is a self-conscious reversal of the original description of creation (Jer 4:23-28). Both these passages state that creation will return to the state of precreation chaos. The expression tohu wabohu is used to describe the precreation chaos in Gen 1:2 and Jer 2:23. It is clear, however, that the nom. tohu has its origin in creation terminology; it does not originate in mythical concepts, as is much more likely for bohu...It seems more likely this was the term suitable to describe the original chaos.”

“The language of the Genesis account of creation can be described as a demythologization of ancient creation accounts...in Genesis the writer has excised the mythical elements radically; he has written an explicit polemic against the creation myth. Polytheism is removed...chaos or void is not a sea monster but is a desolation of waters; the expression tohu wabohu in Gen 1:2 is a hendiadys [i.e. one thought out of two] meaning an unearthly or indescribable emptiness. This would seem to be a creative application of the concept of an uninhabitable empty wilderness to the disordered state before creation.”

And finally, Konkel argues against Tsumura'a attempt to deny that there is any reference at all to pagan deities in these passages. Instead Konkel states: “such a polemic does not mean the account in Genesis is derived as such from mythology, but it does mean that the terminology is written with reference to the common understanding of the battle against the waters to show they have no personal powers as in the myths.”

Ross, who has written much on Genesis, states, “The clauses in verse 2 are apparently circumstantial to verse 3, telling the world's condition when God began to renovate it. It was a chaos of wasteness, emptiness, and darkness. Such conditions would not result from God's creative work (bara'); rather in the Bible they are symptomatic of sin and are coordinate with judgment. Moreover, God's Creation by decree begins in verse 3, and the elements found in verse 2 are corrected in Creation, beginning with lght to dispel the darkness. The expression 'formless and empty' (tohu wabohu) seems also to provide an outline for chapter 1, which describes God's bringing shape and then fullness to the formless and empty earth. Some have seen a middle stage of Creation here, that is, an unfinished work of Creation (v. 2) that was later developed (vv. 3-25) into the present form. But this cannot be sustained by the syntax of the vocabulary. Others have seen a 'gap' between the first two verses, allowing for the fall of Satan and entrance of sin into the world that caused the chaos. It is more likely that verse 1 refers to a relative beginning, rather than the absolute beginning...The chapter would then be accounting for the Creation of the universe as man knows it, not the beginning of everything, and verses 1-2 would provide the introduction to it.”

Below are some additional comments taken from the literature relating to the parallel passages in Isaiah and Jeremiah specifically:

Isaiah 34:11

“D.N. Freedman points out that 11b exhibits a common feature of Hebrew verse only recently noticed, the division of natural pairs in order to secure poetic variation and balance. The line and the stones (plummets, here translated measure) go together, as do desolation and waste (tohu wabohu; see Gen I 2). The line in prose would read, 'He will stretch over it the line and plummet of desolation and waste.' The line and plummet were used by builders of walls; here by paradox, Yahweh uses them to plan destruction.” (McKenzie)

Blenkinsopp goes into quite a bit of detail speculating where the original inspiration for chapter 34 might have come from; quotes from putative pagan sources in the ancient Near East; tries to pin down the time frame in Israel's history which might fit the best the writing; detects a Jewish belief in supernatural creatures such as Lilith; and utilizes much later Talmudic literature as proof of some of his speculations. But through it all, not once does Blenkinsopp even allude to the vision here of a reversal of creation including the tip-off given by the rare conjunction of the words tohu and bohu. Unfortunately, this trend among liberal Bible professors in academia to ignore the quite obvious and concentrate instead on the highly unlikely is all too common.

By contrast, more conservative scholars such as Wolf, Bullock, J.A. Martin and Chisholm at least stress the eschatological judgment that Isaiah 34 portrays even if they don't specifically point to the reversal of the creation highlighted by the tell-tale presence of tohu and bohu in v. 11. However, that fact is brought up in Oswalt's extensive, two-volume commentary on Isaiah. In addition, Oswalt recognizes that although the judgment of Edom is particularly stressed here, a more universal judgment on all rebellious nations lies behind these words.

D.F. Payne writes: “Verse 11 again uses the language of earlier Scripture; the words chaos and desolation are the 'without form and void' of Gen. 1:2. The verse is a clever paradox, depicting God as taking building instruments and careful measurements in order to produce – desolation.'”

“Confusion and chaos are the 'without form' and 'void' of Gn. 1:2; they imply here and in Je. 4:23 an undoing of the very work of creation. The mention of line and plummet gives this demolition a disquieting air of precision, matched only by the care with which the ruins are furnished with appropriate monsters.” (D. Kidner)

And an anonymous author writing in The Dictionary of Biblical Imagery says concerning this verse, “Like many images of judgment, chaos is seen as a temporary reversal of the creation order, a reversal ultimately calculated to secure redemption.”

Jeremiah 4:23

Similarly, we read elsewhere in DBI, “Jeremiah 4:23-28 portrays the 'un-creation' of the world that reverses the creation story of Genesis 1.”

D.R. Jones says, “The picture is explicitly a return to the chaos before creation...Indeed the oracle seems to be composed in relation to the sequence of creation in Gen 1, perhaps freely recollected...

The words are those used in Gen i 2 to describe the formless void that existed before creation. Indeed, in this poem, which is one of the most powerful descriptions of the Day of Yahweh in all prophetic literature, one might say that the story of Genesis i has been reversed: men, beasts, and growing things are gone, the dry land itself totters, the heavens cease to give their light, and primeval chaos returns. It is as if the earth had been 'uncreated'; it is, if one cares to put it so, a ruin o f' 'atomic' proportions.” (Bright)

But Thompson stops far short of feeling that this is an actual apocalyptic vision. He says, “In a passage filled with striking imagery, the judgment that is to fall on Judah takes on the aspect of a cosmic conflagration. Jeremiah experiences a dramatic glimpse into the outpouring of divine anger upon Judah...To a degree the language is Oriental hyperbole [i.e. exaggeration], but Jeremiah uses imagery and phraseology which his predecessors used in their references to the divine judgment...The range of disturbance was thus so great that it seemed to represent a return to primeval chaos. Little wonder that Jeremiah was filled with anguish and amazement. None of the other contemporary prophets spoke of the coming doom in such powerful terms.”

Finally, another article in DBI states: “The cosmos is kept intact only by the governing power of God, and one way in which the prophets envision a coming apocalyptic judgment is to picture it as a return to the primeval chaos in which the earth is 'waste and void' and the heavens have 'no light' (Jer 4:23; cf. Is 5:30).”

HEBREWS 9:1-22

Hebrews 9:1-22

My previous analysis of chapters 8-10 of Hebrews (see below) indicates that 9:1-22 should be considered as a discrete literary unit.

                                               The Structure of Hebrews 8-10

A. Christ in the Heavenly Sanctuary (8:1-5)

        B. Fault with the First Covenant (8:6-7)

                C. Jeremiah 38 (8:8-13)

                        D. Paraphernalia of Tabernacle Described (9:1-5)

                                E. High Priest's Yearly Offering (9:6-10)

                                E'. Christ's One-Time Sacrifice (9:11-15)

                        D'. Offerings in Tabernacle Described (9:16-22)

A'. Christ in the Heavenly Sanctuary (9:23-28)

        B'. Fault with Old Sacrificial System (10:1-14)

                C'. Jeremiah 38 (10:15-18)

9:1 Bruce: “The inadequacy of the old order as compared with the new is now set forth with reference first to the arrangements of the sanctuary under the old covenant and then to the sacrificial ritual associated with that sanctuary. Provision was made under the old covenant for the people of God to worship Him, but the sanctuary erected for this worship was a material one. The particular sanctuary which our author has in mind is plainly the wilderness tent described in detail in the book of Exodus.”

9:2 Although most early manuscripts read “the holy place,” there is also a variant reading “the holy of 

holies.” (Comfort)

9:3 Ellingworth: “The language of this verse remains predominantly spatial. It reproduces features of v. 

2...There is no direct OT evidence for a 'second curtain'; the author's language appears to be imprecise.”

 He presents three earlier offered explanations for this problem.

9:4-5 Bruce discusses in detail the confusion regarding the placement of the items in the temple and 

then states, “In any case, our author does not stay to answer the questions which his passing reference 

to the incense-altar may raise in his readers' minds; this is not the feature of the tabernacle to which he 

wishes to draw their attention more particularly, any more than the contents of the ark of the covenant, 

which he also passes over quickly. The ark of the covenant was the principal, if not the only, article of 

furniture in the holy of holies in the tabernacle and in Solomon's temple.”

9:6-7 Buchanan: “'These things having been thus prepared' refers to the furniture and required objects 

in the holy and the holy of holies, the proper things for worship (9:1), made ready for priestly function. 

'The first tent was '[the] holy' place on the other side of the first curtain from the court where the large 

altar for burnt offerings was. No laymen were permitted in that holy place, but 'priests enter 

continually' as they perform the various 'ritualistic services' required by the law. 'The second [tent] ' 

excludes admission, not only of all laymen, but of all priests except 'the high priest,' and he used it 

'[only] once during the year,' on the Day of Atoneement. This evidently means 'one occasion' during 

the year, rather than one specific entrance.”

9:8 “Holy Spirit indicates” usually refers to a specific quotation in the OT; here it refers to general regulations given in Leviticus, etc. This doesn't mean that the temple needs to be destroyed in order for us to have forgiveness. It probably indicates that the Holy of Holies was veiled from worshipers until the time when Christ opened the veil (Hebrews 10:19-20).

9:9 Comfort notes: “This verse indicates that the writer of Hebrews is addressing a current situation; priests in the Temple offering sacrifices...”

Also see note below on Hebrews 9:12.

9:10 baptisms = ritual washings, and probably doesn't refer to Christian baptism.

9:11-14 “This dismissal of the old priestly ritual is of course part of something larger, of a view of the Old Testament as having to do with mere externals and revealing confusion and perfection, while Christ reveals to us the inner man and brings clarity and perfection, an end to doubt and the fulfillment of what had been promised.” (Josipovici)

Pratt explains, “The New Testament confirms that...Messianic expectations were fulfilled in Christ. With His coming the theocratic ideal did not disappear; it was enlarged and lifted to a higher plane. The land of Canaan, the Jerusalem throne, and the temple were but foreshadowings of a new world introduced by Christ – small matters in comparison with the new state of the theocracy He introduced. The New Testament teaches that salvation came through the blood of Christ sprinkled on the heavenly mercy seat (Hebrews 9:11-14; 10:19;1 Peter 1:1-2), not through animal sacrifices...The theocratic ideal of the Old Testament explodes into its fullest expression in Christ. All types and shadows disappear, and heavenly realities replace them. The tiny, failing national theocracy is transformed into a universal, victorious theocracy through the intervention of Christ.”

9:11-12 Jesus is not only the High Priest offering the sacrifice for us; he actually is the sacrifice.

9:12 In support of his thesis that Luke wrote the book of Hebrews, D.L. Allen notes the similar vocabulary occurring in Hebrews, Luke's Gospel, and Acts. Two examples he cites are eiseimi ('go into') in Hebrews 9:9 and Luke 1:68; 23:38 and lutrosis ('redemption') in Hebrews 9:12 and Luke 1:68; 2:38.

9:13-14 This is an argument from the lesser to the greater. Dead works may refer either to the works of the law which did not save anyone, or is a reference to sins which lead ultimately to death.

Hodges says, “Old-Covenant rituals served for the ceremonially unclean and only made them outwardly clean. But the blood of Christ can do much more. His was a sacrifice of infinite value because through the eternal Spirit He offered Himself unblemished to God. With this lovely assertion, the writer of Hebrews involved all three Persons of the Godhead in the sacrifice of Christ, which magnifies the greatness of His redemptive offering.”

9:14 “The word 'spirit' is written in full...in two early MSS.., pointing to Christ's eternal spirit. This indicates that Christ entered into eternity by virtue of being made alive in his spirit (see 1 Pet 3:18), and then resurrecting and ascending. The word 'Spirit' is written as a nomen sacrum (sacred name) in two early MSS.., suggesting the eternal Spirit of God working in Jesus to bring about his resurrection and ascension.” (Comfort)

9:15 “There is general agreement that this verse marks the beginning of a new paragraph or section...Yet as usual the transition is not abrupt.” (Ellingworth)

9:16-18 Stibbs: “In the references here to the necessity for death to take place in connection with a testament or covenant, two or three different ideas are probably combined. According to ancient practice, covenants were sealed in blood (v. 18) by the symbolic introduction of the death of the party or parties making it. So vv. 16, 17...speak of 'death' being 'brought in; and of a covenant having validity only 'over dead bodies', i.e. probably over the divided pieces of the sacrificed victims between which such covenant-makers passed. See Gn. 15:7-21; Je. 34:18, 19. This gave visible confirmation to a vow of faithfulness unto death...Once the transgression of a covenant obligation had been committed.., death became necessary for a second reason, to pay the penalty of such failure.”

9:18-20 Newman says, “The old covenant contained the sacrificial blood of animals (Heb 9:18-20); under the new covenant Jesus offers his own blood (Heb 9:12, 26).”

9:19 “The author of Hebrews uses the word commandment occasionally (Heb 7:5,16,18; 9:19). All of these references when considered in context indicate that the Mosaic law was no longer considered to be in force, for the Levitical priesthood and sacrifices have been superseded by the priesthood and sacrifice of Christ.” (Schreiner)

9:20 This verse may sound familiar. See Mark 14:24, etc.

9:21 Ellingworth: “This verse takes up again the enumeration of v. 19, but also points towards a wider application in v. 22. As in v. 19, the author probably paints a composite picture, based on Ex. 24:3-8, but attracting features from other OT passages.”

9:22 Although almost everything is required to be ceremonially cleansed by blood under the Old Testament law, Bruce notes exceptions in Leviticus 5:11 and Numbers 16:46; 31:22f.; 31:50.

 

EPHESIANS 2:11-13

In reviewing my past posts, I found that I have yet to address these three little verses. I will try to redress that omission in this post. However, just to recap a bit before proceeding, I had previously come up with a symmetrical literary structure for Ephesians 2:11-22 based solely on key repeated words. The result, shown below in Figure 1 turned out to be practically identical to the proposal of Giavini, which is rejected by Hoehner due to its combination of mirror image and parallel elements. The latter scholar states, “It seems highly unlikely that any author would have purposely constructed such a complicated chiastic structure in mind.” But in rebuttal it should be pointed out that such mixed structures are actually found throughout the OT and NT.

                                           Figure 1: Verbal Repetitions in Ephesians 2:11-22

in the flesh (11)

        aliens (12a)

                strangers (12b)

                       Christ Jesus (13a)

                                far off...near (13b)

                                        peace (14a)

                                                   both groups (14b)

                                                           hostility (14c)

                                        peace (15)

                                                    both groups (16a)

                                                           hostility (16b)

                                        peace (17a)

                                far off (17b)

                                       peace (17c)

                                near (17d)

                strangers 19a)

        aliens (19b)

                        Christ Jesus (20)

in the Spirit (22)

In the first place, one can easily see that the presence of vv. 11-13 is quite necessary in achieving such symmetry. However, what is there to say concerning these particular three verses themselves?

Ephesians 2:11

“The uncircumcision [is] a derogatory label for Gentiles. The circumcision [denotes] the Jews, but often Jewish Christians who required all to obey the Mosaic law (Acts 10.45; Gal 2:.12; Col 4.11; cf. Phil 3.3).” (Maclean)

“In2:11 Paul may first have intended to speak only of the physical act and the visible bodily mark of circumcision, cf. Rom 2:28 – without meaning to give a depreciative or ironic undertone to his mention of the external physical rite. But just as in the OT and often in Paul, the comparison of the effect of the 'Spirit' (2:18) with the reality present in the 'flesh' (2:11) reveals that not all is well with the 'flesh.' Thus 'flesh' receives in 2:11 the same evil meaning as it has e.g. in Gal 3:3, 6:13; Eph 2:3.”

Ephesians 2:11-12

“Harpur writes: “Their deficiencies as Gentiles are marked in three pairs of statements. Physically they lacked the ancient sign of the covenant, and family ties with the promised Messiah. Politically they had no part in Israel's national or religious life. Spiritually they had no prospect or knowledge of the true God.”

Ephesians2:12

K. Barth continues: “It is possible that the Greek conjunction hoti, here translated by 'that' and treated as a resumption of the hoti in vs. 11, should be translated by 'because'; vs. 12 may not be a simple parallel or continuation of vs. 11, but rather a parenthesis interrupting (though supporting) the thought expressed in vss. 11 and 13; remember that you ex-Gentiles have now been brought near. In this case, the subject matter to be 'remembered' is the incorporation of the former aliens into Israel, rather than their past uncircumcision and strangership as such.”

Ephesians 2:12-13

Maclean points out that “You were...But now... [is] another contrast of old and new, forcused on the Gentiles' plight (cf. 2.1-5).”

Ephesians 2:13

“Recent English translations use the term near between 250 and 300 times. In the Bible the quality of being near is variously spatial, temporal and spiritual, and it is predominantly positive in meaning...The most evocative uses of the image of nearness are metaphoric and spiritual...The notion of physical / spiritual distance from God is...developed in several ways...To be far off can...signal being removed from God's blessing (Lk 16:23). But the reverse of being far from God becomes one of the Bible's most endearing images of redemption...This is what excited Paul as he wrote to the Gentile Ephesians: 'But now in Christ Jesus you who once were far off have been brought near in the blood of Christ' (Eph 2:13 RSV).” (Dictionary of Biblical Imagery)

Thielman: “First, since virtually everyone who has examined Eph. 2:17 closely agrees that Paul alludes to Isa. 57:19 when he speaks of 'peace' to 'the far' and 'peace' to 'the near,' it seems most reasonable to see this text behind Paul's earlier use of the terms 'far' and 'near' in 2:13....If Paul already alludes to Isa. 57:19 in 2:13, ..then this prophetic text stands like a set of matching bookends at the beginning and the end of his claim in 2:14-16 that Christ, through his death, reconciled Gentiles and Jews to one another...Second, Paul's concern in 2:13, 17 for the coming of Gentiles into the boundaries of God's people captures a thought that is characteristic of Isaiah's theology...Isaiah frequently refers to a future influx of Gentiles to Jerusalem and to the temple to worship God...Although scholars frequently claim that the terms 'far' and 'near' in this passage [in Isaiah] refer to Jews within geographical Israel and to Jews of the Diaspora respectively,.' the broader context of of the passage indicates that a reference to the Gentiles probably at least stands in the background and may be the primary meaning of the text.”

 

JEREMIAH 52

Figure 1: The Structure of Jeremiah

I. Historical Introduction (1:1-3)

II. Prophet to the Nations (1:4-19)

III. Prophecies Concerning Judah and Israel (2:1-13:27)

IV. Woe to the Leaders (chs. 14-25)

III'. Prophecies Concerning Judah and Israel (chs. 26-44)

II'. Oracles to the Nations (chs. 45-51)

I'. Historical Conclusion (ch. 52)

Sections I and I': Historical Framework

The concluding portion of the book, I', is very important from the standpoint of structural analysis in that it provides a clear-cut case of an historical account (that we also possess in II Kings 24:18-25:30) being transformed by some minor editorial additions and deletions into a brand new literary entity. If one compares the II Kings passage side-by-side with Jer. 52, concentrating on the differences, an enlightening picture emerges. First to note is that the “editorializing” does not do damage to the historical picture portrayed in II Kings. One passage (II Kings 25:22-26) concerning the governor Gedeliah is deleted, but those events are covered in detail elsewhere in the book of Jeremiah. The only other changes are the addition of a few verses enumerating those sent into captivity (Jer. 52:28-30) and some summary phrases. The structure resulting from these minor changes is seen to be the five-part chiasm shown in Fig. 2 below, with the Jeremian additions underlined.

Figure 2: The Structure of Section I'

A. The Fate of King Zedekiah, ending with “and put him in prison till the day of his death”

(52:1-11)

        B. Nebuzaran carries away the people and temple goods, ending with “all the...were #”

(52:12-23)

                C. Those in the city are killed, ending with “So Judah was carried captive out of

the land” (52:24-27)

        B'. Nebuzaran carries away people captive, ending with “all the...were #”

(52:28-30)

A'. The Fate of King Jehoiachin, ending “and brought him out of prison” and “until the

day of his death as long as he lived” (52:31-34)

This chiastic (i.e. mirror-image) structure is created mainly by providing matching phrases to close the corresponding sections. This serves to highlight the contrasting fates of the two kings of Judah in a more obvious manner than in the II Kings account, even though both end on a cautiously positive note. Since Section B deals mainly with the temple goods and B' with the people, equating the two may imply that God is going with His people to Babylon or just reinforce the utter destruction of Jerusalem. In either case, the point is that Judah's future, for the time being, lies in Babylon. The chiasm also points clearly to the conclusion of Section C as the center of emphasis, with a phrase that reminds us of the words “until the captivity of Jerusalem” in Section I. Other phrases tying together I and I' are “the eleventh year of King Zedekiah” (1:3; 52:5) and “words of Jeremiah” (1:1; 51:64).

One would suppose that, as in many other OT passages of a prophetic nature, there would be drastically different interpretations of Jeremiah 52 depending somewhat on the theological stances of the commentators. But in actuality, there is a surprising amount of agreement.

For example, the rather liberal scholar John Bright writes: “Why this account should have been appended here (it has already been encountered in abridged form in ch. xxxix) is not certain. One recalls, of course, that the collection of Isaiah's prophecies found in Isa i-xxxix likewise concludes with a historical appendix drawn from the book of Kings, or one of its sources (Isa xxxvi-xxxix // II Kings xviii-xx). But whereas these chapters contain various authentic words of Isaiah, and describe events in which that prophet played an important role, in the present chapter Jeremiah is not even mentioned. Perhaps the editor felt that an account of the fall of Jerusalem, an event that brought vindication to Jeremiah's lifelong announcement of the divine judgment, would furnish a fitting conclusion to the book because it would allow history itself to give its silent witness to the truth of the prophetic word. Perhaps, too, he saw in the account of the release of Jehoiachin from prison with which the chapter closes (vv. 31-34) some hint, some foreshadowing of the hoped-for future which Jeremiah, at the bidding of his God, had promised beyond the tragedy. In its present context the chapter seems to say: 'the divine word both has been fulfilled – and will be fulfilled!'”

In a similar manner, D.R.Jones proposes multiple authors or redactors who edited the book of Jeremiah into its present shape. For example, he says that “the redactor, living sufficiently distant from the period of the Babylonian oracles, attributed them to Jeremiah in the time of Zedekiah. From his point of view therefore there was nothing incongruous in placing this limited historical tradition at the end of the prophetic collection. But he had deeper reasons which retain their validity. The book of Jeremiah is predominantly prophecy...In restricted measure he allowed himself to look beyond judgment to ultimate salvation. The effect of this historical appendix is to show how completely the prophecy of Jeremiah was fulfilled and, in the last section of Jehoiachin's release, how even the prophecy of hope received at least an anticipatory fulfillment. The redactor's self discipline is exemplary.. He does not attempt to gild the lily. He simply quotes the final section, probably an appendix, of the Deuteronomic history as though to say, 'Draw your own conclusions. The facts speak for themselves.'”

J.A. Thompson's commentary on Jeremiah is much more liberal than most other contributions to The New International Commentary on the Old Testament series. At one point, he comments, “The future lay with these exiles [of Jeremiah 52:24-30]. The compiler of the book was able to bring the lists up to date although we are not certain how the count was made.” Note that he also posits the presence of at least one later editor who pieced together Jeremiah's prophecies into their present shape.

And even the generally conservative Bible scholar C.H. Bullock. who treats all of Jeremiah 1-51 as coming from that prophet's hand, with perhaps some added comments from his scribe Baruch, feels compelled by the evidence of chapter 52 to state that it comes from yet someone else: “The final installment of the book is a historical narrative briefly summarizing the reign of Zedekiah and relating the stages of the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem, the number of the captives taken to Babylon in the three exiles, and the release of King Jehoiachin from prison. The narrative of 52:1-30 parallels and generously supplements that of 2 Kings 24:18-25:21, whereas 52:31-34 is more or less a parallel account of 2 Kings 25:27-30. Because the scope of this appendix extends to the death of Nebuchadnezzar in 562, Jeremiah could hardly have written this narrative. In fact the editor has given us the cue in 51:64 that Jeremiah's words were ended ('Thus far are the words of Jeremiah').”

And just as telling is the fact that Chisholm, a similarly conservative scholar, states that “Jeremiah's prophecies end with the oracles agaimst the nations (see 51:64b), but the Book of Jeremiah concludes with an epilogue (Chapter 52) that parallels the account of Jerusalem's fall in 2 Kings 24-25. This epilogue was probably included to demonstrate that Jeremiah's ministry and message were fully vindicated by history.”

Charles Dyer from the same theological background as Bullock and Chisholm goes one step further in definitely identifying the unknown author who penned Jeremiah 52 as “the same writer who compiled the Book of Kings.” However, this supposition is far from being proved as many other scholars note the differences in detail between the two accounts. As just one example, Cawley and Millard say, “It is taken from the same source as 2 Ki. 24; 5, from which it diverges little probably with the intention of reminding readers that Jeremiah's words had been partly fulfilled, and of encouraging, by the final paragraph, the depressed exiles.”

Childs: “A...feature of the canonical shaping of the present form of the book of Jeremiah is the perspective provided by the Deuuteronomic flavored prose sections which now frame the entire Jeremianic corpus [see Figure 1 above]. The decision to attach a verbatim [sic] excerpt from II Kings 24 to the book of Jeremiah, following the explicit conclusion to the prophet's own words (51.64), is a further confirmation that his words are viewed as a prophecy leading up to the events reported in II Kings.”

Cogan and Tadmor explain that “Jer 52:1-27 parallels 2 Kgs 24:18-25:21, except for a few textual variants (in vv. 10-11). The Deuteronomistic evaluation of Jehoiakim (Jer 52:2) and the manner in which the punishment by exile is presented (Jer 52:3, 27) are the hallmarks of the book of Kings and not Jeremiah. Thus the composition of the unit is certainly attributable to the late Deuteronomistic editor, Dtr(2).”

And adding to this general consensus, the Roman Catholic scholar Raymond Brown states: “This chapter is a repetition, with some complementary material, of 2 K 24:18-25:30, and is in part parallel with Jr 39:1-10; the three passages draw on the one source. It has been added to Jr as Is 36-39 were added to the first part of Is. It shows how the prophet's threats came true, and ends, like 2 K, by offering a hope for the future, such as Jeremiah too had entertained.”

I PETER 5:1-11

 From a purely literary view, it is first interesting to note the close thematic parallels between verses 2:11-3:17 and 4:12-5:11:

        General admonition to obey civil authorities (2:11-17; 4:12-19)

        Ethical lists (2:18-3:7; 5:1-5a)

        Blessings to the humble (3:8-17; 5:5b-11)

Then concerning how 5:1-11 itself is organized, we see the following repetition of themes:

A. sufferings of Christ (1a)

        B. elders (1b)

                C. glory to be revealed (1c)

                        D. do not lord it over the flock (2-3)

                C'. crown of glory (4)

        B'. elders (5a)

                        D'. humility, humble (5b-6a, 3x)

                                E. mighty hand of God (6b)

                                        F. will exalt you (6b)

                                                G. resist the devil (8-9a)

                                                G'. be steadfast in your faith (9a)

A'. your sufferinga (9b)

                C''. eternal glory (10a)

A''. having suffered himself (10b)

                                        F'. God will restore, establish and strengthen you (10c)

                                E'. His is the might (11)

Below are some selected thoughts on this chapter:

verse 1 “Elders (Gk. presbyteroi) were appointed from earliest times to take spiritual charge of the infant churches which came into being with the spread of the gospel (cf. Acts 14:23; 20:17). Acts 15:2 shows that even the Jerusalem church had this order of ministry at an early date, and it probably derived from Jewish precedent...Their task was primarily a pastoral one...” (Wheaton)

verse 2 Goppelt: “The image of 'shepherding the flock' is applied to congregational leadership in only two passages in the NT, here and in Acts 20:28f.), which agree terminologically almost completely, so that a common tradition must lie behind them.”

verse 3 Unfortunately, in the many churches I have attended over the years, I have run into a number of cases where the elders of the congregations did act like total dictators imposing their sometimes not very informed views on the rest of the flock. Apparently that particular temptation for church leaders is not a new phenomenon by any means.

verse 4 For comments on this verse, I turn to the anonymous articles found in The Dictionary of Biblical Imagery.

        “The image of a golden crown is another evocative NT image for immortality (2 Tim 4:8; Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 5:4).”

        “The crown is a symbol of royal authority in the Bible (e.g., Ps 89:19-20) or even an emblem of redemption (1 Pet 5:4, etc.).”

        “The actual pictures of the afterlife for believers stress six motifs. One is that the future blessed state of the redeemed is a state of triumph, usually pictured by the image of a crown (I Cor 9:25; 2 Tim 2:5; 4:8; Jas 1:12; 1 Pet 5:4; Rev 3:11; 6:2)...”

        “Even the trials that made the eyes of Job and the psalmist dim can bring forth benefit in heaven, for such trials are meant to test 'the genuinenness of your faith...may result in praise and glory and honor when Jesus Christ is revealed' and in a 'crown of glory that never fades away' (1 Pet 1:7; 5:4 NRSV). Thus the Christian has hope in Christ that he or she may escape the fading caused by death and sin.”

        “The imagery used to portray heavenly reward in the NT stresses the transcendent permanence of the reward...The preferred image comes from the monarchy, as we read about a crown of righteousness (2 Tim. 4:8), a crown of life (James 1:12) and a crown of glory (1 Pet 5:4; Rev 2:10).”

        “The prize of faith is imperishable (cf. 2 Tim 2:5; 4:8; 1 Pet 1:4; 5:4), not like the celery crown that was awarded to the winner of a race at the games!”

verse 5 Quanbeck points out that “humility is not natural to anyone; it must be put on like clothing. The quotation is from Pr.3.34.”

The annotation in the Jerusalem Bible notes: “the 'younger people' here are not adolescents as opposed to 'older people', cf. Tt 2:6, but the body of faithful as opposed to the 'presbyters' or elders, 5:1+.”

verses 6-7 “Humility, vs. 6, is not only to characterize the relationship of the Christians one to another (as was emphasized in vs. 5), but it is also to be the manner of the whole church in meeting God's dispensations. The reward will be exaltation when the time comes. Consequently there is no occasion for anxiety now, vs. 7, but all earthly worries may be placed upon him, who in his fatherly care sustains and guides his faithful ones toward the determined goal.” (Reicke)

verse 8-9 Goppelt notes, “In affliction it is not only God who is at work, but also 'your adversary, the devil.' This aspect of the situation, not yet mentioned up to this point, follows from its interpretation as peirasmos (1:6; 4:12). As viewed by both OT and NT tradition, peirasmos [trial] not only goes forth from God as examination, but also from Satan as temptation. Jesus himself developed the idea that the eschatological drawing near of God provokes, at the same time, the powers of evil and brings them into alliance under Satan for a unified counteraction (Mt. 12:25f., 28f.); evil thus also takes on an eschatological shape.”

verses 8-10 “In 1 Peter 5:8-9 the devil is portrayed as a 'roaring lion' who causes suffering in the lives of God's people. 1 Peter 5:10 then provides the readers assurance that their experience of suffering in the spiritual warfare will last only 'a little while' before God brings them to the point of spiritual completeness. Though this is not stated explicitly, it is possible to infer that martyrdom completes this process.” (Luter)

And Arnold comments, “In spite of his defeat at the cross, Satan continues to rage in powerful opposition to the people of God...The image of Satan as 'a roaring lion' (1 Peter 5:8) captures the fear he seeks to instill in people...Peter perceived the devil as behind the suffering which the believers in Asia Minor were experiencing when he wrote to them (1 Peter 5:8-9)...Satan's ability to prevent or sever a relationship with God comes through his power to incite sin and transgression. The death of Christ on the cross has effectively dealt with the problem...It is precisely the blood of Christ that redeems people from and bondage to sin and Satan (cf. Rev 5:9).”

verses 10-11 Boring says, “The body of the letter ends not in the imperative but in the indicative mood, not with a command but with a promise (5:10)...The concluding doxology (5:11) is not just a religious flourish with which to end. The power (kratos) attributed to God is cognate to the 'mighty hand' (krateia) of 5:6 with which the unit began, the two words forming an inclusio for the unit.”

ZECHARIAH 10

I generally steer away from any detailed analysis of Old Testament prophetic texts because so much of their interpretation depends on individual scholars' predisposition and theological stance. Thus, theological skeptics found in many mainstream Protestant denominations hold to the belief that there can be no such thing as true biblical prophecy. Therefore if an OT prophecy appears to have actually come true later on, that is good evidence that the passage was written after the fact. And on the other extreme are those fundamentalist scholars, especially of the dispensational persuasion, who will deny that many of the OT prophecies were fulfilled by the first coming of Christ even if the NT writers quote those prophecies in that context, unless there is a word-for-word literal fulfillment. If not, then they will simply state that many OT prophecies have partial fulfillment during Christ's life on earth, with more literal fulfillment yet to come in the last days.

In the middle of these two extreme viewpoints are a vast number of intellectually honest scholarly commentators from various denominations who attempt to make the best sense out of OT prophecies by (1) not demanding that the fulfillment rigidly adhere to a literal meaning, (2) being strongly guided in their judgment by what the NT texts have to say regarding the subject, and (3) denying the dispensational notion that God's main plan on earth is for the Jewish people only, with the Gentiles taking a purely supporting and minor role. The first presupposition makes good sense since one must remember that most OT prophetic passages are found in a poetic context where one would generally not expect literal language to be employed. And the second assumption appears to make the best sense out of the way the NT authors treat Christ's coming and death as having already fulfilled much of what the OT predicted. Lastly, there is much to be said for the view that the emphasis of some, but not all, dispensationalist scholars on the ethnic Jews to the subservience of the Gentile population borders on the heretical.

Complicating this whole issue is another factor brought up by Childs: “The inability to reach a consensus on the dating of the book has left unresolved the historical context for interpretation. As a result, few Old Testament books reflect such a chaos of conflicting interpretations.”

With all that background, it becomes obvious that it is almost impossible for me to present an impartial, complete, and systematic treatment of what all sides have to say regarding any large chunk of OT prophecy, but I will give it a try with the tenth chapter of Zechariah as an example. And to sort out the players somewhat, I have labelled each person's comment as best I could with their general prophetic stance as either liberal (L), scholarly evangelical/conservative (E), or dispensational/fundamentalist (F). The “E” category includes a hodgepodge of historical premillennialists, amillennialists and other scholars who have no particular prior theological axe to grind. But these divisions should not be taken too seriously since, as you may see below, there is a great deal of overlap between these three categories.

To start with, you will not find it uncommon in commentaries of a more liberal nature (such as that of Redditt) to spend the majority of their words reviewing all the generally contradictory theories propounded to explain OT prophecy books as works in progress to which a number of ancient writers contributed, continually update earlier predictions in order to bring them in line with the latest historical events. In other words, to change the predictions so that they better matched what really happened later on. Thus, Redditt feels he has identified four original sources pieced together by a later editor (called a redactor in scholarly terms) in order to produce chapters 9-14 of Zechariah as we have them today. If this view is correct then of course such “prophecy after the fact” is actually no meaningful prophecy at all, and we are totally wasting our time trying to look for any future fulfillment.

Chisholm (F) demonstrates graphically how Chapter 10 relates to the previous chapter in a reverse manner:

        1. The Lord delivers the exiles (9:11-12)

                2. The Lord energizes Judah and Ephraim for battle (9:13-15)

                        3. The Lord shepherds and blesses his people (9:16-17)

                                4. Blessing is offered in the present (10:1)

                        3'. The Lord shepherds and blesses his people (10:2-3b)

                2'. The Lord energizes Judah and Ephraim for battle (10:3c-7)

        1'. The Lord delivers the exiles (10:8-11:3)

It is of interest that Bullock, also coming from a dispensational background, endorses the slightly different symmetrical arrangement of Joyce Baldwin:

    1. Arrival of the king (9:9-10)

            2. Jubilation and prosperity (9:11-10:1)

                    3. Rebuke for sham leaders (10:2-3a)

            2'. Jubilation and prosperity (10:3b-11:3)

    1'. The fate of the good shepherd (11:4-17)

Despite the obvious differences between these two schemes, they do seem to go a long way toward showing that not all prophetic passages in the Bible are given in a strictly chronological order, a fact which some fundamentalists are still reluctant to accept.

Zechariah 10:1-5 “The form of this short pericope [i.e. vv. 1-2] is that of a Mahnwort (admonition). The writer returns from his look at the eschatological future salvation, to the present evil age...The prophet here admonishes his hearers to ask rain of Yahweh, who controls the clouds, and not from the terephim. A further warning is given in v. 2 against diviners and dreamers who speak falsely...The pericope ends with an observation that the people wander aimlessly because they have no shepherd to guide them in the right path...The setting may be a prophetic admonition during the New Year festival about 500 B.C.” (Smith) (E)

“After an initial exhortation to seek prosperity, not from deceitful diviners, but only from the Lord (Zech 10:1-2), the Lord himself speaks words of judgment against Israel's faithless leaders (shepherds), but words of promise to the people (flock) themselves. In an arresting image, he says that he will transform this flock into his magnificent warhorse and will lead them to victory over their enemies (Zech 10:3). He also makes the remarkable promise that he will bring back from foreign lands not only the exiles of Judah, but also those of the erstwhile northern kingdom...who had been deported by the Assyrians some two centuries earlier. In another enigmatic passage with messianic overtones (Zech 10:4), he states that out of Judah will come the cornerstone, the peg, the battle bow and 'every ruler together.'” (Wolter) (E)

“Dissatisfied with the incompetent leaders he appointed over his people, the Lord himself would assume the position of Judah's shepherd (10:3b). He would transform Judah into a mighty military force, compared here to a warhorse (3c). The Lord's power would give Judah stability and enable them to defeat their enemies (vv. 4-5).” (Chisholm) (F)

“Both OT [including Zechariah 10:2-3] and later Jewish literature are replete with references to leaders who fail to perform their God-given responsibilities and as a result render their charge vulnerable to attack.” (Kostenberger) (E)

The evangelical scholar Mark Boda expends roughly forty pages of his detailed commentary on Zechariah just on chapter 10. He sticks strictly to what Zechariah is presenting without additional speculations.

It is absolutely impossible to adequately summarize the almost 60 pages Meyers and Meyers (L) devote to this one chapter of Zechariah, so a few random comments by them will have to suffice. They feel that “the last verse of chapter 9 presents a condition that will be the result of what is described in verse 1 of chapter 10. In a sense, the two verses dovetail, because 10:1 sets forth the conditions – ample and appropriately timed rainfall – that produce the fertility described in 9:17 as well as at the end of 10:1. Not only does the first verse of this chapter provide a link with the previous one, but its first words – 'Ask of Yahweh' – also constitute an anticipation, by way of contrast with the next verse (10:2) of this chapter...This exhortation to ask Yahweh for the conditions of material well-being initiates a chapter containing literary and thematic forms that have aroused much scholarly discussion...At this point, we simply indicate their views, each of which have merit, are not necessarily antithetical; many elements of both perspectives help our understanding of this complex chapter.”

Although Meyers and Meyers were specifically talking of two particular Bible scholars when they made that last comment, it really holds true for all the somewhat competing interpretations one may encounter. In fact, most of the scholars I quote in this post tend to supplement one another to give us a fuller picture of what Zechariah has to say. The exceptions are those arch-liberal writers who concentrate only on the prior sources that supposedly make up our present text while the fundamentalists often care about nothing but when and exactly how the predictions will eventually take place. In my mind, this attention to the distant past or the uncertain future leaves the average reader in the dark concerning the actual importance of the verses for the here and now.

Zechariah 10:6-12 “Through the OT prophets.., God promised both before the exile and after the initial return from exile, that he would regather his exiled people and reconstruct the twelve tribes (Zech. 10:6-12, etc.) – promises that lived on in later Judaism...Jesus himself links his choice of twelve apostles to the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:38; cf. Luke 22:30), and the last book of the Bible pictures the people of God in the last days as the sum of twelve thousands drawn from each of the twelve tribes. These themes prove to be enormously evocative, and debates rage over (1) the extent to which these references to the twelve tribes refer to empirical, racial Israel or in typological fashion, to the eschatological Israel of the new covenant; (2) the extent to which the years of exile ended with Cyrus's decree or continued until the time of Jesus as the Davidic king introduced the long-promised kingdom, or continue yet until the consummation...” (Carson) (E)

Smith (E) summarizes the material in these verses as follows: The section [defined by him as vv. 3-12] consists of both the words of God (vv 3a, 6, and 8-10) and the words of the prophet (vv 3b-5, 7, 11-12). “The pericope opens with the words of Yahweh announcing this judgment against the shepherds (whoever they are). This seems to be eschatological language. Yahweh will judge the unjust rulers because he cares for his flock, the house of Judah. From Judah will come reliable leaders: a cornerstone, a tent-peg, a battle-bow, and a beneficent overseer (v 4).”

“Messiah will regather all Israel (10:6-10) The worldwide scope of this prophecy relating to both Israel and Judah and God's activity on behalf of His Chosen People indicate that the final regathering of Israel just before the Second Advent of the Messiah is in view.” (Lindsey) (F)

“God...defends Jerusalem, to which her king comes in triumph bringing peace among all nations (vv. 9-10), words later quoted in the New Testament and used of the triumphal entry of Jesus into Jerusalem (Matt. 21:1-9)...So much is obscure in these chapters that interpretation of them can be only tentative. The view that they came from a sharply eschatological party that found itself increasingly at odds with the official priesthood and Temple, and so looked for a more and more radical intervention of God, would account for much that is here.” (Mason) (L)

“Assyria and Egypt here represent oppressors in general. Gilead was the first territory to be conquered after the Exodus, cf. Is 40:3+” (Brown on v. 10) (E)

Zechariah 10:11-12 “In regathering Israel to the land, God will remove every obstacle to restoration, pictured in terms of the ancient deliverance when He brought Israel through the sea on dry land. Again Assyria and Egypt were mentioned to represent all Israel's enemies (cf. v. 10).” (Lindsey) (F)

“The lesser role of Gentiles in the millennium is the subject of many Old Testament Scriptures such as the following: (...Zechariah 10:11-12).” (Walvoord) (F)

“The OT prophesies that this judgment [of Babylon] would include the drying up of the Euphrates River (Isa. 11:15; 44:27; Jer. 50:38; 51:36; cf. Zech. 10:11). The prophecy was fulfilled by Cyrus's diversion of the river (cf. Isa. 44:27-28), which allowed his army to cross the river, enter Babylon unexpectedly and defeat it (Herodotus 1.190-91...)...The victory by Cyrus led to Israel's release from captivity (Isa. 44:26-28; 45:13).” (Beale) (E)

Carson (E) agrees with Beale concerning the fulfillment of this prophecy.

In conclusion, it is interesting to compare the above with the historical premillennial analysis of Zechariah 10 by Payne (F) as he attempts to parse out the various verses found in that chapter according to the most likely times of fulfillment, either during the Old Testament period (O), New Testament (N), or yet future (Ft). Below is a summary of his analyses:

        10:3, false leaders fall (O)

        10:8a, redemption won (N)

        10:8b, others gathered, increase (church?) (N)

        10:9, believers live, though scattered (N)

        10:10, the church will be raptured and brought with Christ to Palestine (Ft)

        10:11a, rivers dry up (Rev 16:12) (Ft)

        10:11b, world powers are brought down (Ft)

        10:12, the saints rule (Rev 2:26) (Ft)

As you can see, he appears to take Zechariah 10 as a more or less chronological presentation, a stance with which not all scholars would agree as can be seen in the more literary and topical arrangements shown above.