Properly understanding the identity of these mysterious personages breaks down into two separate issues which are sometimes mistakenly conflated with one another: (a) identifying the source of the imagery and (b) determining how John is utilizing those images.
We must keep in mind, first of all, that practically everything in the Book of Revelation has Old Testament roots. Therefore it is not surprising that almost every scholarly commentator begins at that point for their understanding of passages in it. However, most also realize that this is only a starting point since John alludes to OT passages in order to convey deeper information regarding the future of the church.
Source of the Imagery
JB note: “In Zc[2:5-9] the two olive trees symbolize Joshua and Zerubbabel, the religious and the civil leaders of the repatriated community who restored Temple and city after the Exile.”
Mounce gives additional reasons showing that the powers of the “two witnesses” were obviously modeled first of all on Moses and Elijah. Namely, “they have the power, like Elijah to consume their enemies with fire (II Kgs 17:10ff) and to shut the heavens so that it will not rain (I Kgs 17:1), and like Moses they can turn water into blood (Ex 7:14-18) and smite the earth with every plague (Ex 8:12). Further, it was a common expectation that Elijah and Moses would return before the end of the world. Malachi had prophesied, 'Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and terrible day of the Lord comes' (Mal 4:5; cf. Mk 9:11 and Mt 11:14). Apparently Deuteronomy 18:18 ('I will raise up for them a prophet like you from among their brethren') had given rise to a similar expectation regarding Moses (cf. Jn 6:14; 7:40). It was Moses and Elijah who appeared with Jesus on the Mount of Transfiguration (Mk 9:4). Furthermore, the ascension of the two witnesses into heaven (vs. 12) corresponds with II Kings 2:11 (Elijah's transport) and the tradition underlying the pseudepigraphical Assumption of Moses.”
Ruiz, on the other hand, points to the additional possibility that the two are modeled after Enoch (Gen 5.24) and Elijah (2 Kings 2:1-11; Mal 4:5).” And Morris notes that others see Elijah and Elisha in those roles.
John's Application of the Imagery
For some of the more literal commentators, there is no need to go any further in deciding the identify of the two witnesses than pinning down exactly which of the two Old Testament characters they are. And even this is not as easy as it might seem to be, as seen in the candidates mentioned above.
For example, John Phillips unexpectedly concludes, after an incredibly detailed description of exactly what he feels will be happening in world affairs at the time, that he is not quite sure who the two witnesses will are. A literal understanding would dictate that they be Moses and Elijah brought back from heaven only to be killed off. Phillips' only objection to this scenario is that perhaps it wouldn't be quite fair to Moses since he had already died once. I guess he felt that making Elijah die would not pose any problem since, after all, he never had a chance to die earlier.
And for a Roman Catholic perspective, it is not surprising that a footnote in The Jerusalem Bible translation, states, “Here they probably symbolize the two leaders appointed to build the new Temple, the Church of Christ, namely Peter and Paul, probably martyred in Rome under Nero, v. 8.” Just for clarification, this is certainly not referring to the non-instrumental church congregations of that name which are widespread in America.
We are probably on safer ground, considering the highly symbolic meaning of most every image in Revelation, to speculate on what deeper meaning should be attached to the two witnesses. But, unfortunately, there is even more division of opinion concerning this issue.
Thus Morris begins with the common understandings of either the Law and the Prophets; or the Law and the gospel; or the Old Testament and the New Testament as possible interpretations. And then he goes on with his personal thoughts on the subject: “The context seems to demand something directly associated with the church, and in view of verse 7 perhaps we should think particularly of the martyrs. The number two may stand for adequacy of testimony (as in Dt. xvii. 6). Or it may derive from the two faithful churches in chapters II-III, and point to that section of the church which is faithful unto death, the martyrs. The clothing of the witnesses is sackcloth, which points to mourning. They are prophesying doom and their attitude accordingly is sad and penitent. The church is a powerful church only when it is a penitent church. A comfortable, easy-minded church has no power to stir the world either to salvation or to opposition.”
Jacques Ellul can always be relied upon to give a novel perspective to Scripture, and his explanation of this passage is certainly no exception. “It is difficult to be more explicit in describing the time of Jesus upon earth (...we must not, for example, become confused by the number 'two'). Truly then there is here an exact synthesis of the work of Jesus. The two witnesses undoubtedly represent the two dimensions that relate to Jesus Christ...we must not forget the duality of name: he is Son of Man and also Son of God...On the other hand, we must not forget either that Jesus is not an isolated, solitary person: he is descended from the elect people and he bears in himself the whole race of David. And he is head of the Church, which is his body. So in him the two witnesses of God meet: Israel and the Church.”
Ellul's association of the two witnesses with Jesus is also shared to a limited extent by Beale, who says that the reason “a three and one-half year period is chosen to represent the church's witness is that Christ's ministry lasted about that amount of time....The pattern of the narration of the witnesses' career in 11:3-12 is intended as a replica of Christ's career: proclamation and signs result in satanic opposition, persecution (John 15:20), and violent death in the city where Christ was crucified; the world looks on its victim (Rev. 1:7) and rejoices (cf. John 16:20); then the witnesses are raised and vindicated by ascension in a cloud.”
For a typical amillennial understanding of Revelation, Hendricksen says, “In very close connection with 10:8-11, chapter 11 now gives us a description of the 'bitter' experiences which the true church must endure when it preaches the 'sweet' Gospel of salvation...The true church is now represented under the symbolism of two witnesses. 'These witnesses symbolize the church militant bearing testimony through its ministries and missionaries throughout the present dispensation.' The fact that there are two witnesses emphasizes the missionary task of the church. Cf. Lk. 10:1: the Lord sends his missionaries two by two: what the one lacks the other supplies. Now the church as an organization, functioning through its ministers and missionaries, will carry on this work for twelve hundred sixty days. This is [symbolically] the period that extends from the moment of Christ's ascension almost until the judgment day.”
Beale begins by stating, “The 'two witnesses' aren't two individual prophets...or the two Jewish high priests killed in A,D. 68 [Hal Lindsay's contention']. Neither are they only a part of the Christian community...The two witnesses also do not represent concepts like 'the word of God' and 'the testimony of Jesus' because they are portrayed as people who perform actions and speak words. Rather they represent the whole community of faith whose primary function is to be a prophetic witness. The OT had prophesied that the entire eschatological community of God's people would receive the Spirit's gift of prophecy (Joel 2:28-32. The early Christian community understood that Joel's prophecy had begun fulfillment in their midst (Act 2:17-21). This prophetic gift would be the means by which the entire church would 'witness' to the whole world (Acts 1:8).” And for those still not convinced, Beale, in his usual thorough manner, confirms this belief by listing six other considerations that point in the same direction.”
J.B. Payne reaches the same conclusion in a different manner. After first noting the similarity to both Moses/Elijah and Zerubbabel/Joshua, he states that it would be strange for the beast to “make war” on two individuals. However, that phrase is applied to the church as a whole in Revelation 13:7. Secondly, the resurrection and ascension of the witnesses into heaven is paralleled by the resurrection and ascension of the dead in Christ described in I Thessalonians 4:16.
Peter
Davids simply says, “Just as there will be an embodiment of evil,
so witness will be embodied in two individuals who will come in the
spirit of Moses and Elijah.”
It is perhaps appropriate to
conclude with J.M. Ford's brief historical survey of candidates for
the two witnesses proposed by various scholars over the years just to
demonstrate that this is issue has always been a live one within the
church:
Hippolytus and Tertullian – Enoch and Elijah (see I Enoch 90:31)
Victorinus – Jeremiah and Elijah (see Jeremiah 5:14)
Bacon – James the Bishop of Jerusalem and the Apostle John
Gelin – two Christian prophets martyred by Titus
Munck and others – Peter and Paul
Qumran scrolls – Joshua and Zerubbabel, symbolizing the priesthood and laity
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