PARABLES: REAL TOADS IN IMAGINARY GARDENS

The title is taken from a poem by Marianne Moore and applied to parables by Kyle Snodgrass in his major study Stories With Intent.

Influences

1. One scholar feels that Jesus got his idea for using parables from Aesop's fables. That is highly unlikely, and they are not parables at all as we shall see.

2. Thousands of rabbinical parables have been identified so some other scholars feel that is where got the idea from. Chilton says that only three of them, however, preceded those of Jesus. Snodgrass is even more restricting and says that “none of these later rabbinic parables with certainty can be shown to have existed prior to Jesus' ministry.” Albright and Mann say that the form had already been established, but Jesus treated it more extensively than before and gave it renewed vitality. Another contrast with parables by rabbis is that they used parables only as an illustration to help explain a biblical text. Jesus' parables stand by themselves and “are in fact the direct and indispensable communicators of the truth Jesus means to affirm.” (Hugh Anderson)

3. But by far the closest parallels to Jesus' parables are found in the OT, as we shall see. One difference between those and Jesus' parables has been pointed out by Schipper -- OT parables tend to increase conflict and have their background in major conflicts but Jesus' parables have more of a comforting message.

Number of Parables in the NT How many parables of Jesus are found in the NT? Do you think it is 10 or less, between 11 and 30, between 31 and 50, more than 50?

1. Meier concludes that only four parables are authentic teachings of Jesus himself. (Intent, 575)

2. Kistemaker lists 40 NT parables.

3. My old KJV lists 43.

4. Jesus' teachings = 40 parables and 20 parabolic statements. 1/3 of his total teachings (Chilton)

5. Snodgrass: Number of Jesus' parables ranges from 37 to 65.

6. R. Stein counts 30-80 of Jesus' parable.

7. Zimmermann identifies 104 parables of Jesus. The size of parables varies anywhere from one verse (pearls before swine—Matthew 7:6) to a short story (Prodigal Son, Good Samaritan).

Definition Why can't they all agree? The problem pointed out by all these different opinions is that no one knows how to accurately define a parable. Anyone care to offer a definition?

(1) an earthly story with a heavenly meaning? Albright and Mann call this “a woefully thin description.” “Most are not about heaven. They are directed to life on this earth.” (Snodgrass)

(2) an extended comparison drawn from nature or daily life designed to illuminate one (usually) spiritual truth and call the listener to action. The details are not to be pressed and are often there for added color. However, many of the parables do not appear to call the listener to action at all.

(3) “a form of speech used to illustrate and persuade by the help of a picture” (Peisker)

(4) “A parable is a story that means what it says and something besides.” (Robert Frost)

(5) “an allusive narrative which is told for an ulterior purpose” (D. Stern) However, some parables are not narratives at all.

(6) “analogies with pictorial or narrative images, put to the service of discourse set in the context of some larger story.” (John Sider)

(7) “a picturesque figure of language in which an analogy refers to a similar but different reality” (Robert Stein)

What can we conclude from all of this?

G. P. Anderson: “the diversity of parabolic speech forms resists an all-encompassing definition." Snodgrass: "In fact, possibly no definition of parables will do, for any definition that is broad enough to cover all the forms is so imprecise that it is almost useless.”

You would think that this whole problem would be cleared up by just looking at the definition of “parable” in a Greek or Hebrew dictionary. But it isn't that simple. The closest Hebrew word approximating a parable is the word masal, but in its many usages in the OT, it can apply to an oracle, saying, proverb, taunt, obscure speech, or riddle, as well as to what we would call a parable. In the LXX, masal is translated as parabole about 30 times. In NT, the word parabole can also have a range of meanings: a lesson (Matthew 24:32), a proverb (Luke 4:23), a rhetorical question (Luke 6:39), aphorism, or concise statement of a general truth (Mark 7:14-23; Matthew 13:31,33; Luke 21:29-30), and short example (Mark 3:23).

The Greek word is derived from para meaning alongside or in comparison with, as in the English words paraphrase, parallel, etc. Bollo = to cast or place. So literally it means to compare one thing to another. This has confused me a little as a chemist, because benzene derivatives are named with para meaning the opposite of, not next to. But para can also mean against or beyond, and so I picture it somewhat like one item looking across at its mirror image.

Figures of Speech

The first fact we need to keep in mind in interpreting the parables is that they are a form of figurative, not literal, language. The fact that many begin with “a certain man did such and such” is no more an indication of their historical truth than the opening “once upon a time.” I once taught a neighborhood Bible study on the parables and a visitor came to our meeting. He explained that he had been told by God in a vision that everything in the Bible should be taken as literal fact. Therefore, if the stories Jesus told didn't actually happen, that would make Jesus a liar. Needless to say, he wasn't too happy with my approach and didn't come back again. In the next lesson we will actually encounter some listeners who made the same mistake of taking parables as actual historical events.

There are different types of figurative language in the Bible. So to distinguish them from parables, consider these examples, which all have the concept of king or kingdom in them.

King and Kingdom Teachings in Comparisons

Dark Saying, Enigmatic or Solemn Word (Matthew 11:12): “From the days of John the Baptist until now the kingdom of heaven has suffered violence, and the violent take it by force.”

Pronouncement Saying (Luke 17:20-21): “The kingdom of God is not coming with things that can be observed...For, in fact, the kingdom of God is among you.”

Allegory – a point-by-point comparison; a coded description with symbolic details that should be deciphered in detail (Matthew 13:1-23): Examples would include John 6, 10 and 15. His allegory of the Good Shepherd prompted those hearing it to say, “If you are the Messiah, tell us plainly.” (John 10:24)

Type – an OT historical event or person as representative of a NT event or person (antitype) (Hebrews 7:1-3): Jesus compared to King Melchizedek

Symbolic Vision with fantastic details (Daniel 2:36-45): A succession of kingdoms is pictured as a statue made of different materials.

Fable – a story with fantastic details that teaches a moral (Judges 9): The trees get together to chose a king.

Simile – a metaphor containing the word “like” or “as.” (Matthew 18:3): “Truly I tell you, unless you change and become like children, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven.”

Metaphor – a limited comparison containing only one verb (Romans 14:17): “The kingdom is not food and drink.”

Parables themselves can take various forms:

Similitude – a picture based on a familiar truth or process from everyday life with verbs in the present tense (Mark 13:28): “From the fig tree learn its lesson: as soon as its branch becomes tender and puts forth its leaves, you know that summer is near.” In a similitude, a recurring event, rather than a one-time happening, is usually described.

Story Parable – analogy told in the past tense describing what one particular person or persons did (Luke 19:11-27): Parable of the Pounds

Illustrative Story – similar to the story parable but teaches by direct example, not by analogy (Parable of the Good Samaritan)

Rhetorical Question (Luke 14:31): “What king, going out to wage war against another king, will not sit down first and consider whether he is able with 10,000 to oppose the one who comes against him with 20,000?”

Acted-out Parable: Instead of the earthly story being given orally or in writing, it is portrayed visually.

Purpose of parables

Klyne Snodgrass' book on the parables is entitled Stories With Intent, pointing out that Jesus always had a purpose in mind when he told them. Purpose of parables: ethical, theological, or prophetic. Example: Interpretations of Matthew 13:44 – “The kingdom of heaven is like treasure hidden in a field, which someone found and hid; then in his joy he goes and sells all that he has and buys that field.”

1. ethical: the incomparable value of the gospel means that man should be willing to sacrifice everything else in his life to obtain it

2. theological: Christ sacrificed all to redeem the church

3. prophetic: Israel rejected Christ so its relation to the kingdom is hidden today, but it will be revealed by Christ at the Second Coming

Another example: Laborers in the Vineyard

1. ethical: teaches our proper attitude toward others who are converted later in life.

2. theological: we are not saved by our works but by faith

3. prophetic: Jews' attitude of jealousy toward converted sinners and Gentiles may eventually lead to their conversion also.

These three ways of looking at a parable become blurred in practice so I will be grouping the specific parables we will be studying into different categories that are somewhat arbitrary. For example, consider those parables directed originally to the attitudes of the Jews, and especially their religious leaders, in a historical or prophetic sense. Since Christians are now the People of God, we can rightly apply these lessons in an ethical and theological way to ourselves.

There are two parts to any parable: the surface story or fact and the deeper meaning

Surface story –

“There is scarcely one parable without a surprising trait.” Eduard Schweizer

“complicated, sometimes even surreal, narrative.” Bruce Chilton

“realism with strangeness and cracks in it.” Alan Johnson

“A major key to the meaning of a given parable appears when the realism begins to break down.” John Donahue

Deeper meaning –

“Over-elaboration and over-simplification are both to be avoided in the interpretation of the parables.” (Wiseman)

“There are six or eight one-point interpretations of the Sower currently put forth, each to the exclusion of the others!” (John Sider)

St. Augustine's treated the story of the Good Samaritan as a detailed allegory, as we shall see in a later lesson, but keep in mind that he also did not ignore the literal teaching.

In an allegory there is a different point made for each detail; in a parable there is usually only one main point intended. However, that one point may differ depending on how you view the story: prophecy, moral teaching, etc.

Interpreting the parables

With any passage in the Bible, the most important principle in interpretation is to look at the immediate context. And that is especially true with the parables because if you divorce them from their setting, you can read just about any meaning into them that you want. And there are some additional words of advice in trying to understand the parables.

1. Go with Jesus' interpretation if he gives one. Unfortunately, he rarely provides one. Notable exceptions are when he explains to the disciples in some detail the parables of the sower and seed and that of the wheat and tares.

2. Don't over-complicate things. As an example, look at Matthew 24:32-33. “From the fig tree learn its lesson: as soon as its branch becomes tender and puts forth its leaves, you know that summer is near. So also when you see all these things, you know that he is near, at the very gates.” It sounds like a popular saying that simply means “It will become obvious when the time arrives.” But some prophecy experts go a step further and say that the fig tree is a symbol of Israel, and therefore the meaning is that the end will come once the modern nation of Israel is really flourishing, which is right now. 

Besides imposing a symbol on top of a parable, there are two other problems with this particular interpretation. In the first place, the fig tree very rarely stands as a symbol for Israel in either the OT or NT. Even in the case of Jesus' withering the fig tree, it stands more specifically for the dead and ineffective institution of Jewish sacrificial worship not for the nation as a whole . The second problem is that Jesus specifically refers back to “all these things” which he has just been describing, and they all concern crises for Israel, not times of prosperity at all.

To show what happens if you apply this same sort of interpretive methodology to another brief parable, look at Matthew 7:6 (“Do not give what is holy to dogs nor cast your pearls before swine”). Again we have a short saying that means in figurative language that we should not waste our time trying to convince people who are obviously not interested in hearing the truth. Jesus teaches the same thing in literal language when he sends out the disciples two-by-two and tells them to stay where they are welcome but to shake the dust off their feet when they leave a town where they are not accepted. But dogs and swine were often symbolic terms used by the Jews to denote Gentiles. So if we tacked on that symbol to the parable we would get the mistaken teaching that Gentiles are unworthy of hearing the Gospel because they will all reject it.

3. Don't allegorize since many details are only there to add color to the story. As an example, look at the parable of the stolen sheep told to King David by the prophet Nathan. There is only a broad similarity to the story and the events in David's life; you can't draw a point-by-point comparison. Many people have been misled by Jesus' almost allegorical explanation of Sower and Seed parable and feel that the same approach must be used in all cases.

But there is a huge difference between taking an allegorical approach which reads spiritual truths into each and every detail of a parable, and the fact that each time we approach a parable we may discern a different overall meaning to it when we look at it from a different perspective and at different points in our life. During my four years in graduate school, our pastor must have given at least six different sermons on the Parable of the Prodigal Son. Each of them was meaningful and each one was true to the biblical account.

4. Be suspicious of any interpretation that leads to a teaching not found clearly somewhere else in the Bible. “If what is taught in parables is also taught nonparabolically, we may have confidence about the material...” (Snodgrass)

5. Snodgrass also gives other advice on how to approach the parables:

    a. “Jesus told parables to prompt thinking and stimulate response in relation to God. Parables usually engage listeners, create reflection, and promote action. The main question to ask is: How did Jesus seek to change attitudes and behaviors with this parable?”

    b. We need to know the historical and cultural setting behind each parable.

    c. Look at immediate context of the parable.

    d. Don't lose sight of the forest in looking at the trees

6. Most narrative parables follow Axel Olrik's Laws regarding the characteristics of any story told orally: This includes folk tales, fairy tales, and even jokes (Leland Ryken)

    a. The Rule of Three: repetition of three groups, events or people (three people who encounter the man by the roadside in the story of the good Samaritan). Or the Parable of the Fig Tree in Luke 13:6-9 which has the owner looking at the tree three times. We can also see this common characteristic in the Three Little Pigs or jokes where three guys walk into a bar.

b. Rule of End Stress: The last in a series is the most important (again as in the Good Samaritan)

c. Rule of Stage Duality: only two characters or groups of characters are on the stage at one time (Prodigal Son)

d. Rule of Contrast: virtue and vice, wisdom and foolishness, etc. (wise man building his house on the rock vs. the foolish man building it on sand)

e. Rule of a Single Theme: In most cases, there will be one main point intended by the parable.

Most of Jesus' parables follow these rules which insure that people who hear them can easily remember and repeat them to others. This is important proof that they were originally told orally rather than being later literary creations as proposed by liberal scholars. Just compare Grimm's fairy tales with those of Hans Christian Andersen.

Jesus sometimes used the same example to make a different point. This can be compared to a stand-up comedian who has a set routine but modifies his material a little depending on the particular audience. As an example, look at two parallel explanations for “the sign of Jonah.” In Matthew 12:39-42 addressing a crowd in Galilee, Jesus says that this refers to the three days and nights he would be in the grave. About one year later in Judea, Jesus stated in Luke 11:29-32 that the sign will be the positive response of the Gentiles in repenting when they hear the Gospel.