ROMANS 12:20; PROVERBS 25:21-22: HEAPING COALS OF FIRE

 “No, if your enemies are hungry, feed them; if they are thirsty, give them something to drink; for by doing this you will heap burning coals on their heads.'” (Romans 12:20)

In general, this is a pretty straightforward verse except for the last phrase.

“Love your enemies; it will drive them crazy.” Is that what this means? Let's first examine the context of this verse. It is better to use the plural "contexts" and look at all of them from the broadest to the most specific.

Whole Bible  Notice that Paul is quoting from the Old Testament (Proverbs 25:21-22). The wording is basically the same as in the early Greek version (Septuagint). However, the Proverbs passage adds “and the LORD will reward you.” This is a promise of blessing for those who do these things. By omitting that last phrase, Paul shifts the emphasis to the effect your actions will have on your enemy. There is one other change in wording that we will mention a little later. The immediate context in the OT passage really has little to add since the proverbs tend to be stand-alone sayings.

New Testament context: The natural place to go for the treatment of one's enemies is Christ's teachings in the Sermon on the Mount. Since these commands center around treating our enemies with love, Paul's word on that subject obviously cannot contradict the teachings of his Lord., whatever Paul may have in mind in these verses.

Book of Romans is written to a church he hadn't visited at the time, and therefore the letter has been considered as the closest thing we have to Paul's universal theology, in contrast to most other epistles which were more concerned with situations specific to the churches addressed. So we might consider the commands here to be important for us today and very applicable to all time.

In most of Paul's letters, he begins by setting the scene with a theological background before going on with ethical teachings or commands. In Romans, the theological portion includes the first eleven chapters, with the ethical only beginning in chapter 12. So it is appropriate that he gives his overall theme to the second half in 12:1-2. Note the connecting word “therefore” which indicates that the moral behavior he is going to be talking about in the rest of the letter is based on the theology which precedes it. And that theology is centered around the fact that we are saved by grace, not our works. So however we might interpret Romans 12:20, it can't describe behavior on our part that is needed to earn our salvation. Let's keep zeroing in closer to the passage in question.

Proximate Context: Chapters 12-13 have their own simple structure that is fairly easy to pick out, with B and B' dealing with our relationships to those generally favorable to us and C and C' dealing with those who are more antagonistic.

A. Be transformed (12:1-2)

B. Love within the body (12:3-13)

                                C. Attitude toward enemies (12:14-21)

                                C'. Attitude toward authorities (13:1-7)

B'. Love for neighbor (13:8-10)

A'. Put on Christ (13:11-14)

According to this organization, the overall theme for these two chapters is expressed in A and A'.

Immediate Context: As shown below, two similar principles bookend the smaller section highlighted. And verses 19-20 are seen to be parallel to the command not to repay evil for evil.

1. Principle: Bless those who persecute you and don't curse them. (v. 14)

        2. Live in harmony (15-16)

                3. Don't repay evil for evil (17)

        2'. Live peaceably with all (18)

                3'. Don't take revenge (19-20)

1'. Principle: Don't be overcome by evil, but overcome evil with good. (v. 21)

If you go back to our verse under question, remember that Paul begins his quote with the word “No.” That is a logical connector with what has just preceded, v. 19: “Beloved, never avenge yourselves, but leave room for the wrath of God; for it is written, 'Vengeance is mine, I will repay, says the Lord [Deuteronomy. 32:35].'” The connecting idea is that we should not take revenge ourselves but leave it to God. So it is obvious that heaping coals of fire on someone's head is not to be taken literally. But then what does the imagery mean?

Comparing the Septuagint (LXX) of Proverbs 25:21 with Paul's Greek wording in Romans 12:20, Paul 

interestingly does not use the verb for feeding in LXX (the generic trepho); instead he substitutes the 

rarer word psomizo. “The change may be significant: psomizo describes the act of feeding as giving.” 

 (Beale and Carson, Commentary on the NT Use of the OT, p. 681)  This latter word signifies:

    “to feed with bits as a child” (Young's Analytical Concordance)

    “to feed with morsels, as nurses do children” (Vine's Expository Dictionary)

    “to break into crumbs” or “to spend everything on food” (F. W. Grosheide, The First Epistle to the 

Corinthians)

These ideas go well beyond just throwing a loaf of bread to an enemy. They demonstrate care and 

sacrifice on our part.

The main problem with figurative language such as similes and metaphors is to determine what aspect of the literal image is being referred to. Let's at last return to our example of heaping coals of fire on someone's head. Here are some explanations for this action that I have found in the literature: Remember that we have pretty much eliminated the literal meaning from consideration, but that still leaves several possibilities:

        1. It will store up even more future punishment for him by God. (The Hebrew word for burning coals appears seventeen times in the OT, most of which are images of God's judgment)

        2. Our actions will shame him into repentance. (There was an ancient Egyptian ritual in which people submitted to having burning coals in a bowl put on their head to demonstrate their contrition.

        3. Either 1 or 2 will result, depending on his response.

        4. It will represent the preliminary step in making a friend of him. “Since hot coals for the preparation of a meal would have been carried in an insulated container on the head, this might be a symbol of hospitality...a necessary preparatory stage toward a meal of reconciliation...” (Jacob W. Elias, 1&2 Thessalonians, p. 233) This last explanation appears to be a little far-fetched since only one of the seventeen appearances of hot coals in the Bible refers to their use in preparing food.

Literary Context

Lastly, it is important to point out that Paul is quoting a proverb, and proverbs by their very nature 

express principles, not promises. So you should not take Paul's words to mean that invariably your 

enemy will come around. He may still refuse to repend and so result #1 above will be his fate.

BOOK OF HOSEA: INTRODUCTION TO LITERARY STRUCTURE

A longer version of the analysis below will be sent to anyone requesting it (elmerphd21@hotmail.com).

Many have commented on the difficulty of discerning the pattern behind the book of Hosea, most notably after ch. 3. This is perhaps due to the absence of obvious introductory and concluding formulas compounded by the number of textual uncertainties in the book. The present proposal pictures Hosea as a three-cycle architecture.

The Structure of Hosea

Cycle I: Hosea 1-2

A. Hosea and Gomer (Hosea 1)

B. God and His People: Condemnation (Hosea 2:1-13)

C. God and His People: Redemption (Hosea 2:14-23)

Cycle II: Hosea 3-11

A. Hosea and Gomer (Hosea 3)

B. God and His People: Condemnation (Hosea 4:1-10:12)

C. God and His People: Redemption (Hosea 10:13-11:12)

Cycle III: Hosea 12-14

A. Jacob (Hosea 12)

B. God and His People: Condemnation (Hosea 13)

C. God and His People: Redemption (Hosea 14)

Such a presentation of biblical prophecy in multiple parallel cycles is not uncommon, and the fullest revelation is generally reserved for the final cycle. This can certainly be seen in the Book of Hosea.

Several common markers appear at key points in this three-cycle arrangement:

    “contend/contention” at the beginning of IB and IIB

    “(commit) adultery” at the beginning of IIA and IIB

    allusions to the Ten Commandments at the beginning of IIB and IIIB

Cycle I (Hosea 1-2)

The well-known story of Hosea is told in Chapter 1 as an acted-out prose parable of the deteriorating relationship between God and his chosen people. This relationship is then recapped in the poetic chapter that follows, with much common vocabulary between chs. 1 and 2.

Verses 1-13 of ch. 2 (IB) describe the sins of the people and God's corresponding judgment on them. By contrast, Hosea 2:14-23 (IC) portrays God wooing back his people and showering them with blessings. These two sections are meant to be read as a contrasting pair since the shared language between the two makes the contrast in theme even more striking. An inclusion of sorts encompasses the whole of these two poetic sections and marks their division:

Say to your brother, “My people,” and to your sister, “She has obtained pity.” (2:1)

And I will punish her for the feast days..., says the LORD. (2:13)

And there I will give her her vineyards...and there she shall answer as in the days of her youth...and in that day, says the LORD... (2:15-16)

And I will have pity on Not pitied, and I will say to Not my People, “You are my people.” (2:23)

Cycle II, Part A (Hosea 3)

The relationship between the events of chs.1 and 3 have been endlessly debated. In many ways Hosea 3 appears to be a retelling of Hosea 1. In both, God commands Hosea to take a harlot as a wife, and then the deeper significance of this act is explained, ending with a vision of Israel's return from spiritual and geographical exile. These parallels between Hosea 1 and 3 are strengthened by several verbal repetitions:

Ch. 3 ends as ch. 1 begins, with “king” and “children.”

            Ch. 1 ends as ch. 3 begins, with a reference to “the people of Israel.”

Both chapters begin with the word “wife.” Such parallels are expected since both chapters start new cycles.

Cycle II, Part B (Hosea 4:1-10:12)

Since the judgment section IIB constitutes the bulk of the book, it is necessary to further delineate it to better comprehend its structure. One helpful clue is to look at the synonyms for the audience of the extended passages. Thus, the first sixteen verses of ch. 4 are addressed exclusively to Israel while the last three verses mention Ephraim only. Chapters 5 and 6 alternate between Israel, Ephraim and Judah. The subjects of the remaining chapters in this section are as follows:

Hosea 7: Ephraim and Samaria

                        Hosea 8: Ephraim, Samaria and Israel

                        Hosea 9: Ephraim and Israel

                        Hosea 10: Ephraim, Samaria and Israel

Judah is also occasionally addressed in subdivisions outside of chs. 5-6 but usually as part of a key marker to close out a major section. With these rough divisions in mind, it is possible to discern four major sub-sections which can be paired up in any of three possible ways. The keyword “falsehood” appears to mark the beginnings of units IIB1, 3 and 4.

Cycle IIB           Opening               Opening              Closing Reference

Unit                   Addressee           Accusation                 to Judah

1 (4:1-16)          Israel                      list of sins                     positive

            2 (4:17-7:1a)           Ephraim                 harlotry                   positive

            3 (7:1b-8:14)          Ephraim             list of sins                          negative

            4 (9:1-10:12)     Israel                          harlotry                          negative

Each of these four sub-sections can be seen to possess completely symmetrical literary structures.

Cycle II, Section C (Hosea 10:13-11:12)

This passage of Hosea best illustrates the apparently conflicting attitudes of God toward the Northern Kingdom as the sub-units alternate between love and justice.

1. God's Judgment (10:13-15)

2. God's Compassion (11:1-4)

1'. God's Judgment (11:5-7)

2'. God's Compassion (11:8-12)

It is telling that Hosea 11:8, the verse which Davies considers to be the high point of the book, appears in this passage, which forms the conclusion of the central unit of Hosea.

Cycle III, Sections A and B (Hosea 12:1-13:16)

The whole of Hosea 12-13 is made up of smaller units that alternate between elaborations of Ephraim's sins and a rehearsal of biblical history. Each of the “2” sections leads to the next thematically with the middle segment acting as a bridge (see below).

IIIA1. Ephraim's sin: alien alliances (12:1)

IIIA2. Past history: Jacob (12:2-6)

IIIA'1. Ephraim's sin: rich oppressor (12:7-8)

------------------------------------------------

IIIA'2. Past history: Jacob and deliverance from Egypt (12:9-14)

------------------------------------------------

                        IIIB1. Ephraim's sin: idolatry (13:1-3)

IIIB2. Past history: deliverance from Egypt (13:4-6)

IIIB'1. Ephraim's sin: judgment (13:7-16)

Cycle III, Section C (Hosea 14)

After many chapters of almost unremitting condemnation, the book ends on a note of reconciliation in parallel to the “C” sections of the first two cycles. However, all three also contain ethical demands on the people in order to receive the promised blessings. Cycle IIIC divides into four units as in the RSV. The Northern Kingdom is directly addressed in the first (vv. 1-3) and third (vs. 8) passages, which are separated by a divine soliloquy. These three units are bracketed by “fruit” as an inclusio (taking the Greek and Syrian textual version for v. 2).

The final verse of this chapter serves as a coda for the whole book. This passage is generally treated as an intrusion written by another, later hand since it would seemingly be more at home in one of the wisdom books of the Bible. It should more properly be considered as an integral part of the book, especially of this last section, since the use of the word “stumble” echoes the earlier use of that word in 14:1, with both serving as an inclusio for ch. 14. Also, this verse fittingly closes the whole Book of Hosea by reiterating the important theme of knowledge that ends the previous two cycles. At the end of Cycle 1, we are told that Israel “shall know the LORD (2:20)” while the second cycle concludes with the note that “Judah is still known by God (11:12).”

The reference at the end of the final cycle is presented on a more personal level: the reader is challenged to know and understand what is written “for the ways of the LORD are right, and the upright walk in them.”

 

THE UNITY OF HAGGAI-ZECHARIAH-MALACHI

More on this subject can be obtained by contacting me at elmerphd21@hotmail.com

These three books have been closely associated in the minds of many biblical scholars not only due to their proximity in the canon but also because of their common concerns and history. From a literary point of view, various relationships of a closer nature have been proposed for some or all of these scriptures. If one were to diagram all of the possible symmetrical couplings of these books, the following schemes would result:

1. Haggai                                         1. Haggai                                     1. Haggai 

1'. Zechariah I                                         2. Zechariah I                              2. Zechariah I

        2. Zechariah II                                 2'. Zechariah II                     1'. Zechariah II

        2'. Malachi                              1'. Malachi                                           2'. Malachi

        A                                                         B                                                  C

Much has been written concerning elements of the first two possibilities, but not about the third. The arguments that follow demonstrate that these books are actually intertwined in all three ways, as well as by other interlocking devices.

Scheme A

Haggai and Zechariah I

Stylistically, Zech. 1-8 and the book of Haggai are in places so similar that it is clear both books are intended to be read together. One indication of these books' literary unity is that the key introductory phrase “thus spoke Yahweh of Hosts” appears exactly 24 times in Haggai-Zech. I.  The most obvious unifying device used is the sequence of seven date markers, with none in Zech. II. The first sequences in each work are presented chiastically (month/day – day/month), and Darius' unique designation as hammelek in place of melek in these two verses also clearly marks out the first and last dates in the combined Hag-Zech. I corpus. Meyers and Meyers also discern the following pattern to all the dates in these books that “provide a structure for the work as a whole.”

A. Three separate dates (Hag. 1:1; 1:15; 2:1)

B. One repeated date (Hag. 2:10,20) for the temple re-foundation ceremony

A'. Three separate dates (Zech. 1:1; 1:7; 7:1)

Zechariah II and Malachi

The major evidence for connecting these units is the three opening formulas “oracle / word of Yahweh” occurring only at Zech. 9:1, 12:2 and Mal. 1:1. The idea that the name of God is (or will be) great in all the world is found at the end of Zech. II (14:9) and the beginning of Malachi (1:11,14). In addition, there are exactly seven appearances of the word “covenant” in Hag-Zech-Mal, all appearing in Zech. II and Malachi.

Scheme B

Haggai and Malachi

Little has been said in print regarding any direct connection of Haggai with Malachi. The word mal'ak, meaning an earthly messenger of Yahweh rather than angel, does appear in Hag. 1:13 and Mal. 2:7. Conversely, the only prophetic books besides Obadiah in which 'ap (“anger”) does not appear are Haggai and Malachi. 

Zechariah I and Zechariah II

Most evidence for the pattern of Scheme B relies on the parallels within the two parts of the canonical book of Zechariah.  Even among those who admit to at least two separate authors and a protracted period of composition for the book of Zechariah, some recognize the value of considering its present form. Computer analyses have been performed on linguistic features of Zech. 1-14, with conflicting results regarding its unity depending on the methodologies employed while others argue for a connection between chs. 1-8 and 9-14 based on a “shared rhetorical structure.” Some of the factors cited in favor of the unity of Zechariah are as follows:

a. The word “prophet” occurs exactly twelve times in the book and the vocative address ten times. There is a chiasm of sorts in some of these:

Zion (2:7)

daughter of Zion (2:10)

                                                daughter of Zion/Jerusalem (9:9)

Zion (9:13).

b. Echoes of Micah 4-5 have been detected in both Zech. I (3:10; 8:20-21) and Zech. II (9:9,10).

c. An interesting possible inclusio for Zech. I-II is formed by the similarly sounding words mesulla (“deep”) in 1:8 and mesilla(“bell”) in 14:20, both in conjunction with horses.

d. Zech. 1-6 and 12-14 have been characterized as apocalyptic in character. If so, this suggests the unified structure:

A. Apocalyptic (Zech. 1-6)

        B. Prophetic (Zech. 7-11)

A'. Apocalyptic (Zech. 12-14)

Scheme C

A review of the four individual structures of the books in question shows that, overall, they take the form of Scheme C if one pairs up those with similar organizing principles:

A. Haggai

Cycle 1 with 3 subunits

                        Cycle 2 with 3 subunits

B. Zechariah I

Introduction

Central chiasm

Conclusion

A'. Zechariah II

Cycle 1 with 3 subunits

                        Cycle 2 with 3 subunits

B'. Malachi

Introduction

Central chiasm

Conclusion

Additional Organizing Principles

One trait characterizing this compiled work is the frequent use of the phrase “Yahweh of Hosts,” comprising more than one-third of the usages in the entire OT. The introductory phrase “the word of Yahweh to” appears exactly 14 times, spanning Hag. 1 to Mal. 1. “Peace” occurs exactly seven times in Hag-Zech; “name” appears seven times in all Zechariah; and God's name is referenced ten times in Malachi.

The words “gold” and “silver,” separately or as a pair, occur 12 times in Hag.-Zech.-Mal, often in apocalyptic passages. If Zech. 9:3 is excluded due to its use of a different Hebrew word for gold, an elaborate interlocking literary pattern emerges:

                        Haggai:                        silver and gold (2:8)

Zechariah I:          gold (4:2) gold (2x) (4:12)

silver and gold (6:11)

Zechariah IIa:     silver (9:3) silver (2x) (11:12-13)

                        Zechariah IIb:             silver and gold (13:9)

gold and silver (14:14)

Malachi:                             silver (3:3a)

gold and silver (3:3b)

Central Role of Zechariah I

Zech. 1-8 provides important literary links between the books that precede and follow it in the canon. But these links are not evenly distributed within Zech. I. There are many references to Zech. II, but the only cross-references to Zech. I are to its introduction (1:1-6) and conclusion (chs. 7-8), none to the central Visions section. Zech. 1:1-6 similarly functions as a bridge between the Book of Haggai and the rest of Zechariah I. Haggai also has close structural similarities with Zech. 7:1-8:23.

One can thus argue that the apparent structural focus of these last three books in the Christian OT canon is at the center point of all three schemes we have examined, the border between Zech. I and Zech. II. At this key juncture, Zechariah 8:20-23, we learn that the ultimate reason for the building, founding and purification of the temple is to bring the Gentile nations to a true worshiping relationship with the one true God.

 

ANGELS IN HEBREWS 1-2

Since the previous post used “devil” as an example of etymology being misused, let's go to the opposite extreme: “angel.” The Greek word aggelos is usually translated as “angel” in the Bible. A past member of our church once told his Sunday school class, which was studying the Book of Hebrews that this is a poor translation since the original meaning of the word is simply “messenger,” such as one of God's human messengers, the prophets. We can look at all the appearances of this word in Hebrews 1-2 and try to determine from the contexts which meaning makes the most sense in each case. Is it a supernatural being or a human messenger from God such as a prophet?

Two general considerations: (1) If it is a human messenger that the author is talking about, he has already used a perfectly good word for that in 1:1 (prophet) and (2) the meaning in each case must almost certainly be the same throughout these two chapters since they constitute one long continuous argument.

Some of the appearances of “angel” in Hebrews could be ambiguous, but at least three verses clearly refer to what we would call angels.

    1. “Are not all angels spirits in the divine service...?” (Hebrews 1:14) Spirit beings are always contrasted with flesh and blood creatures in the Bible.

    2. “What are human beings that you are mindful of them?...You have made them for a little while lower than the angels.” (Hebrews 2:6-7)  The meaning “prophets” makes absolutely no sense here.

    3. “For it is clear that he (Jesus) did not come to help angels, but the descendants of Abraham.” (2:16) Whether “descendants of Abraham” means the Jewish people or the community of faith, “prophets” again makes no sense here.

There is only one usage of aggelos in which “prophets” appears on the surface to make more sense. “For if the message declared through angels was valid, and every transgression or disobedience received a just penalty...” (Hebrews 2:2)  But that verse is explained by looking at some parallels elsewhere in the Bible.

    Stephen says to the Jewish crowd, “You are the ones that received the law as ordained by angels...” (Acts 7:53)

    “Why then the law? It was added because of transgressions...and it was ordained through angels by a mediator.” (Galatians 3:19)

This idea arose in NT times from the Septuagint (LXX) version of the description of the law being given on Mt. Sinai. “The LORD came from Sinai, and dawned from Seir upon us; he shown forth from Mount Paran. With him were myriads of holy ones (“angels” in LXX); at his right, a host of his own.” (Deuteronomy 33:2)

 

MATTHEW 4: THE DEVIL

Preachers often resort to the use of etymology (the original meaning of a word) in explaining a biblical passage, but the problem is that word meanings change with time. We can't always use the original meaning of a word as a sure guide to how it was understood and used at a later date. For example, the English word “enthusiasm” meant to be possessed by a god all the way up to about 1800. On the other hand, sometimes an earlier word meaning may have been in the back of the author's mind as he wrote, and so limited use of etymology may on occasion give us a better understanding of nuances in an author's language. 

Look at Jesus' temptation in the wilderness by the devil (diabolos) in Matthew 4. The original meaning of the Greek word was “false accuser or slanderer,” and it is rightly translated that way in the Pastoral Epistles (1 Timothy 3:11, 2 Timothy 3:3, and Titus 2:3). Therefore some scholars appeal to this original meaning and propose that the word in Matthew 4 refers to Christ's inner human nature that he is struggling with. However, the three passages mentioned in the Pastoral Epistles are the only places in the NT where the word appears in the plural and in each case is used to describe members of a congregation. Then there is one passage (John 6:70) where the word appears in the singular but is missing the definite article “the” in front of it, and so that verse may be correctly translated: “Did I not choose you, the twelve? Yet one of you (Judas) is a devil.” All other 34 appearances of the word are in the singular using the phrase “ho diabolos” (the Devil). From basic grammatical considerations, that means that each of these references probably refers to the same entity. Nine of these occasions appear in the story of Christ's temptation.

Working against the assumption that the word applies here to Christ's inner nature are (1) the various action verbs indicating that it refers to an external force, (2) the difficulty in understanding how Christ's inner nature could first “come” to him and then “depart” from him, (3) the theological problem of “the accuser/slanderer” being used as a definition of Christ's human nature, (4) the strange picture of Christ's inner nature asking Christ to bow down and worship it, and (5) the possible logical inference that all other references to the devil in the NT must also refer to Christ's inner nature.

Finally, at the end of Matthew's account of the Temptation (4:10), Jesus calls the devil "Satan." And Mark's parallel account specifically says (1:13) that Christ was tempted by Satan. Of course, The word Satan appears throughout the Bible from the OT to Revelation as the description of an angelic being who was originally part of God's heavenly court. All that seems to fit the definition of the entity we call the Devil or Satan much better than a definition of Christ's inner nature.

If you are going to use etymologies to try to understand the meaning of a word, you really need a resource like The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology (or OT equivalent) which will explain how these word meanings changed with time. A CD-ROM version is also available.

 

 

JOB 15

In considering an individual passage in the Bible, sometimes the best context or parallel to the passage is found elsewhere in the same book but not immediately adjacent to the passage in question.

Here is a random example taken from the Old Testament illustrating the importance of such proximate contexts:

“The wicked writhe in pain all their days...they are destined for the sword...distress and anguish terrify them...they will live in desolate cities in houses that no one should inhabit...they will not be rich.” (Job 15:20-35)  And there are similar contentions found in the last half of Job 15.

A simple-minded approach is to say, “It is in the Bible; therefore I believe it.” But let's look at the various contexts that need to be taken into account. In the first place, there are quotation marks around the passages above, and so we need to find out who is talking, what are his credentials, to whom he is talking, and why. The answer to the first question is found at the beginning of that chapter – it is Eliphaz the Temanite.

You then need to trace the conversation back to chapter 12 to find out that Eliphaz is talking to Job as part of a debate. Eliphaz spells out the sources for his ideas in Job 15:17-18. “I will show you; listen to me; what I have seen I will declare – what sages have told, and their ancestors have not hidden...”

In other words, he is basing his opinions entirely on what he has personally witnessed, what wise men have taught, and what passes for the wisdom of the ages -- none of which are exactly direct revelations from God.

But the context within the book doesn't stop there. We need to move forward to see Job's direct reply to Eliphaz in 16:1-3: “I have heard many such things; miserable comforters are you all. Have windy words no limit? Or what provokes you that you keep on talking?” So we need to weigh the opinions of a righteous man like Job (We know he is righteous from the first chapter.) against those of someone who may have a very incomplete picture of the truth like Eliphaz, keeping in mind that Job at times is almost as much in the dark as his friends. 

Of course, by the end of the book all doubts are resolved as to who has the most correct ideas when the ultimate Judge says to Eliphaz, “My wrath is kindled against you and against your two friends; for you have not spoken of me what is right, as my servant Job has.” (Job 42:7)

Notice that to catch all of these pertinent contexts for the passage in question, we have had to be acquainted with the whole book of Job from the first chapter to the last in order to pick them up.

 

I THESSALONIANS 4:16

The very smallest elements to consider when practicing exegesis (interpretation) of a biblical passage are, of course, the individual words in a sentence. But even words only make sense within the context of the sentences in which they occur. And to make sense of a sentence, it is necessary to have at least a basic understanding of grammar. I grew up decades ago when it was common to teach the diagramming of sentences. At the time it seemed like a useless pursuit (and it is certainly a lost art today), but actually I have found that knowledge invaluable in Bible study.  As one example, consider the first part of I Thessalonians 4:16:

“For the Lord himself

                with a word of command,

                with an archangel's voice, and

                with a trumpet of God

                        will descend from heaven...”

The truth expressed here is that at some time or other, the Lord will descend from heaven. The rest of the sentence modifies this basic thought with three prepositional clauses that spell out three things that will accompany this event. 

The Jehovah Witnesses argue, based mainly on this verse, that Michael and Jesus are one and the same person because (a) Jesus is speaking with an archangel's voice and (b) Michael is the only archangel. However, knowledge of basic English grammar (assuming, of course, that the translators accurately rendered the meaning of the original Greek) will show that: 

    (1) It doesn't say who is speaking with an archangel's voice. The three “with” clauses just spell out simultaneous events occurring as Christ descends. Is Christ Himself supposed to be giving a command, speaking with an archangel's voice, and blowing a trumpet all at the same time?

    (2) “An archangel” versus “the archangel" actually proves that there is more than one archangel, otherwise it would read “the” or “his” archangel's voice.

As an aside, the additional "proof" that the Jehovah Witnesses provide to equate Michael and Jesus is that each one of them, in separate Bible passages, is said to lead an army of angels. Since (a) there can't be two leaders of an army and (b) only one angel army is mentioned in the Bible, obviously Michael is another name for Jesus. As an easy exercise, see if you can pick holes in both those arguments.

 

EPHESIANS 1:3-14

Some act as if there is no context surrounding an individual verse. In the first place, remember that the Bible wasn't divided up into verses and chapters until the Middle Ages and some of these divisions were rather arbitrary. So we shouldn't necessarily expect that a single verse represents the smallest literary unit to consider, or even that each English sentence is the smallest unit. For example, Ephesians 1:3-14 is one single Greek sentence usually divided into about six separate sentences in English. I once visited a Sunday school class when I lived in upstate New York. They would read and discuss one verse at a time and not allow discussion of any other verse in the chapter until listing all the possible interpretations of each individual verse under question. Of course, most of the suggested interpretations could have been easily dismissed if they had only looked ahead to the rest of the passage.

Let's look at that long sentence in Ephesians I mentioned. It starts out: “Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has blessed us in Christ with every spiritual blessing in the heavenly places.” Ephesians 1:3

In a classroom situation, we could go around the room with each person giving an opinion on what “every spiritual blessing” means. Or we could simply read the rest of the sentence to see what Paul himself had in mind:

chosen to be holy and blameless (v. 4)

destined for adoption as his children (v. 5)

bestowed his glorious grace on us (v. 6)

redemption through his blood (v. 7a)

forgiveness of our trespasses (v. 7b)

made known to us the mystery of his will (v. 9)

obtained an inheritance (v. 11)

marked with the seal of the Holy Spirit (v. 13)

redemption as God's own people (v. 14)

 

DIFFERENTIAL REWARDS IN HEAVEN

Years ago when I was leading a Sunday school class, I was approached by a class member who showed me a rather large book on the subject of rewards (not reward) in heaven. He felt that it would form the excellent basis of a semester's study for the class. I did not seriously consider that proposal for several reasons. In the first place, Jesus always shied away from providing information to his followers regarding the afterlife, even when they pressed him. Secondly, I felt at the time, and still feel, that fixation on what we might get as rewards for being a Christian was diametrically opposed to Christ's teachings. However, for those whose curiosity compels them to know more about differential rewards in heaven for believers, some of the following passages may provide the few hints we have in the Bible on the subject:

Matthew 18:1

Matthew 20:21-23

Matthew 19:27-28

Mark 10:28-30

Mark 10:31

Matthew 20:1-16

Matthew 5:12

Matthew 10:41-42

Luke 19:16-19

Matthew 25:20-23

John 14:2

I Corinthians 3:5-8

I Corinthians 3:10-15

Ephesians 6:5-8

Colossians 3:23-24

Revelation 2:22-23

Revelation 22:12

II Timothy 4:8

Revelation 4:10-11

 

BOOK OF HEBREWS: INTRODUCTION TO THE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

A more complete version of the analysis below will be sent to those requesting it from elmerphd21@hotmail.com.

Reginald Fuller remarks that every element in the King James title of this book, “The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Hebrews,” has been questioned by scholars. So rather than spend time rehearsing complicated issues that are better treated in general commentaries, we will plunge into the single issue of structure, which possesses its own set of complications. An excellent starting point for looking at this anonymous contribution to the NT is Paul Ellingworth's review and critique. As he summarizes the situation, older commentators used content as a guide; some more recent scholars have employed form-oriented analysis; and some see no plan to the book at all.

F. F. Bruce's outline, shown below, is typical of those using of the book's content alone.

    I. The Finality of Christianity (1:1-2:18)

    II. The True Home of the People of God (3:1-4:13)

    III. The High Priesthood of Christ (4:14-6:20)

    IV. The Order of Melchizedek (7:1-28)

    V. Covenant, Sanctuary and Sacrifice (8:1-10:18)

    VI. Call to Worship, Faith and Perseverance (10:19-12:29)

    VII. Concluding Exhortation and Prayer (13:1-21)

    VIII. Postscript (13:22-25)

After examining various form- and content-based outlines for Hebrews, Ellingworth concludes: “A comparison between these various approaches reinforces the view that the form and the meaning of a text operate on different, in principle independent, levels, and that little is to be gained by forcing a common meaning on an essentially formal feature.”

The present proposal seems to provide more hope in reconciling these two approaches than Ellingworth would allow. If the book is viewed as the ten-part chiasm shown in Fig. 1, one can first see that all of the section divisions of F. F. Bruce are maintained except that his sections I and VI are, in the present scheme, subdivided into two units each.

Figure 1: The Structure of Hebrews

        I. Introduction: God's New Revelation (1:1-3b)

                II. Angels and their Message (1:3c-2:18)

                        III. Israel Tested in the Wilderness (3:1-4:13)

                                IV. Apostasy and Confidence (4:14-6:20)

                                        V. Old and New Priesthood (7:1-28)

                                        V'. Old and New Sacrifice (8:1-10:18)

                                IV'. Apostasy and Confidence (10:19-12:2)

                        III'. Perseverance and Testing of Believers (12:3-29)

                II'. Exhortations (13:1-21)

        I'. Conclusion: God's New Revelation (13:22-25)

Similar phrases mark the beginnings of the two halves of this structure: “He sat down (one who is seated) at the right hand (of the throne) of the Majesty on high (in the heavens).” (1:3, 8:1) The chiastic structures proposed by Guthrie and by Neeley differ from the present proposal, but both have the same center point shown in Fig. 1.

Sections I and I'

Verses 13:22-25 are similar to many other NT epistle endings in that they specifically call attention to the process of written communication or revelation. But Hebrews also concludes with mention of a fellow evangelist's future visit and of the local church leaders. In this manner, the conclusion subtly points to three specific means through which the Son speaks to the church in the last days (a subject actually introduced in Hebrews 1:2): written revelation, inspired evangelists and church leadership.

The twin sections I and I' bracket the bulk of the book and provide its major theme: Christ's revelation and work, as carried on through the Holy Spirit, replacing those of the Old Covenant. Thus, the symmetry demonstrated in Fig. 1 argues against any theories that propose ch. 13 was added by the author to one of his preexisting sermons.

Sections II and II'

Moving inward to sections II and II', the inferiority of angels to Christ is obviously the major subject of the former unit. However, a less prominent theme emerges if one considers the parallel passage dealing with a believer's relation to the law. This theme is first sounded in the quotation from Psalm 45:7 in Hebrews 1:9: “Thou hast loved righteousness and hated lawlessness.” It reappears in the oblique comments at the beginning of ch. 2 where the “message declared by angels” is validated. (Acts 7:53 clarifies this message as being the law given to the Jews.) Lastly, Section II closes with Christ's promise to help those who are tempted and forgive those who do sin.

Section II' is an apt parallel to the above section in that it is the main exhortational passage in Hebrews. Here the twin commandments of Christ to love one's fellow man and love God are expounded upon. The motivation for such behavior, as spelled out in 13:16, is to please God. He, through Christ, will help the believer to live such a life according to 13:21. So II' ends on the exact theme as does Section II. The subject of angels even reappears in Section II' in v. 13:2.

Sections III and III'

Section III is often entitled something like “Christ's Superiority to Moses.” A perusal of this whole passage, however, shows that it is more exhortational than doctrinal in tone and deals primarily with the Jews' example of disobedience during the “day of testing in the wilderness.” In Section III', this theme of testing becomes one of God's discipline, a word repeated with variations no less than eight times in ch. 12.

Section III begins with “heaven” as a circumlocution for God (3:1) and III' ends in the same manner (12:25). Both sections begin by considering Christ as the basis of faith and end with stern warnings of God's judgment to come. There is an additional tie between the two with the reappearance of Moses in Section III' (12:20-21), much as the angels of Section II briefly reappear in II'.

Sections IV and IV'

Guthrie calls the verses beginning these passages “the most prominent use of parallelism in the whole book.” Both units begin with what have been labeled as baptismal confessions. Just as obvious is the shared theme of apostasy occurring in these paired units. In both passages, the possibility of falling away is bracketed by more comforting words. Also, each section begins by reminding the readers of the basis of their confidence in Christ and urging them to “hold fast to the/our confession” and “draw near” in 4:14-16 and 10:19-25). Each concludes with one item of Paul's famous trilogy: faith, hope, and love.

Sections V and V'

The center sections V and V' of this epistle are the most clearly doctrinal in nature. In Section V, one scriptural passage (Psalm 110:4) is quoted twice at key junctures to show that Jesus came as a priest like Melchizadek, superior to the Aaronic priesthood. Section V' deals with the superiority of the New to the Old Covenant, especially in replacement of the sacrificial system with Christ's one-time sacrifice. Again, a passage from the OT (Jeremiah 38 this time) is quoted twice to prove the author's point. Carson notes that in 7:21 and 10:15, the author “can say that 'God says' or 'the Holy Spirit says' even when quoting passages of Scripture where the Old Testament author is not in fact directly addressed by God.” Two particularly similar passages in these paired sections are 7:25-26 and 9:24, both of which describe Christ’s intercession in heaven on our behalf. The verb “appoint” appears at the end of V (7:28) and the start of V' (8:3).

If one were to pick the central element to the whole book, it would fall structurally at (a) the end of Section V with the phrase “a Son who has been made perfect forever” to summarize all the christological statements in Hebrews and (b) at the start of V' where we are comforted with the news that “we have such a high priest, one who is seated at the right hand of the throne of the Majesty.”

Subdivisions

Taking a cue from the division of the whole book into ten sections, one can extend this principle to each of the eight major divisions themselves (see Fig. 2 as just one example). Many commentators have felt that biblical authors used the number ten in a symbolic sense to denote completeness or fullness. If so, what more perfect number to use for a treatise on the fulfilling work of Jesus Christ!

Figure 2: Section II

Theme: Jesus' Atonement for Sin (1:3c)

A. Christ is Superior to Angels (1:4)

        B. Scriptural Evidence (“did God say..or again..or again”) (1:5-13)

                C. Conclusion (1:14-2:4)

A'. Son of Man Superior to Angels (2:5)

        B'. Scriptural Evidence (2:6-8a)

                C'. Conclusion (2:8b-9)

A''.We Share Christ's Nature (2:10-11)

        B''.Scriptural Evidence (“saying..and again..and again”) (2:12-13)

                C''.Conclusion (2:14-18)

Implications of Structure on Authorship

Of the many names proposed over the years for the author of this letter, one of the few who has left other existing compositions for comparison is Luke. As early as Clement, Luke was proposed as the author of Hebrews or at least its translator into the Greek language. A thorough defense of his authorship is found in David L. Allen's book, The Lukan Authorship of Hebrews.

The fixation on the number “ten” seen in the structure of the Letter to the Hebrews has echoes in the ten appearances of “tabernacle” and “Abraham.” There are ten references to a new or better covenant in the book. Also, the Greek words for “tithe” and “receive tithes” appear in the NT only in this letter (six times total). Turning to Luke’s known writings, the use of number “ten” in his Gospel accounts for almost half the occurrences of this particular number in the whole NT. Including the multiple “ten thousand” in Luke14:31, “ten” appears exactly ten times in Luke’s Gospel. The combined work Luke-Acts contains 10 of the 17 appearances in the New Testament of “free/freedom,” indicating, in Allen's words, a “considerable theological weight” assigned by Luke to this concept. The key verb “evangelize” appears exactly ten times in Acts.

Turning again to the overall structure of the Epistle, there are only two books in the NT besides Hebrews that are structured using major divisions each containing that same number of subdivisions. These are Galatians and the Gospel of Luke.

A more problematic argument for associating Luke with this epistle stems from the observation that both the prologue and conclusion of Hebrews can, with little difficulty, be seen as five-part chiasms each. Thus, the total number of sub-sections in Hebrews equals ninety, the exact number of sub-sections present in Luke's Gospel. The number ninety is also significant to Luke in that the key word akouo (to hear) appears ninety times in Acts.

 

HAGGAI: INTRODUCTION TO THE LITERARY STRUCTURE

 

The following is abstracted from a chapter in my unpublished book The Structure of Scripture. I will send a copy by email attachment to anyone requesting it at elmerphd21@hotmail.com.                

Although the style of the the Book of Haggai has often been disparaged, others defend it ably. It is hoped that the reader will have a greater appreciation of the overall organization of this small, but not insignificant, prophetic book by the end of this analysis.

One note is in order before proceeding with a structural analysis. A complicating issue concerns the relationship of the book of Haggai to Zechariah 1-8. This subject will be addressed in a future posting.

Structural Proposal

This book would seemingly be easy to analyze, not only because of its brevity but also due to the abundant dates that serve as literary markers. The dates are presented variously, but all are given in terms of King Darius' reign and appear in chronological order.

Several of these act to introduce major oracles or narrative sections in the book. Each of the resulting individual sections can be shown to possesses its own thematic and literary unity. Linguistic and thematic similarities also pair together the similarly lettered sections shown below.

Figure 1: The Structure of Haggai

Cycle I (1:1-2:9)

A. This people is not ready to build (1:1-2)

B. “Consider your ways” (1:3-15a)

1. up to the present (1:3-6)

                                                            2. the future if you build (building begins) (1:7-15a)

C. Shaking of the heavens and the earth (1:15b-2:9)

Cycle II (2:10-23)

A'. This people offers unclean work (2:10-14)

B'. “Consider from this day onward” (2:15-19)

1. up to the present (2:15-17)

                                                            2. the future since building began (2:18-19)

C'. Shaking of the heavens and the earth (2:20-23)

This proposed structure is helpful in answering several specific questions regarding the book:

1. Haggai 1:15 One controversy can perhaps be settled by consideration of the structure proposed in Fig. 1. Scholarly opinion is fairly evenly divided between those who feel that the last part of Haggai 1:15, “in the second year of Darius the king,” belongs to the date that precedes and those who feel 1:15b follows it. If the analysis in Fig. 1 is correct, then the most likely placement of 1:15b, from a strictly structural viewpoint, is with the following date formula. This would result in the first and last sections of Cycle I beginning with an identical date format: year, month, day.

2. Recipients A second point is in regards to the intended audience of the various oracles in the book. Breaking out the first two verses as a separate section, as in Fig. 1, resolves some of the ambiguity regarding the recipients in Haggai 1. If there is some degree of true parallelism between the two halves of the book, the recipients of the various messages would appear to be as follows:

Section A: leadership

Section B: people

Section C: those who had witnessed the earlier temple

Section A': priests

Section B': people

Section C': Zerubbabel

Multiple leadership figures are addressed in A and A'; the entire nation is the audience for B and B'; and C and C' are directed toward select members of the community.

3. Haggai 2:10-19 A more fundamental controversy concerns the proper understanding of the these verses. The date in 2:18 given for the temple foundation laying (December 18, 520 BC) appears to be at odds both with the date several months earlier in 1:15a and Ezra's date of 537 BC (Ezra 3:10-13). Due to this supposed inconsistency, many critical scholars opt for moving 2:15-19 to a position in the book after 1:13 with a concomitant change of the date to the sixth month to restore the supposed original text. It can be seen that any such major emendation of the text would completely destroy the structure of Fig. 1. A more conservative approach adopted by some commentators is to treat the foundation laying as a formal consecration or re-dedication event in distinction to the original dedication during Ezra's time and to the preliminary work on the temple mentioned in Haggai 1:12-15a that began three months earlier.

4. Haggai 2:20-23 The proper understanding of this oracle is of importance mainly because it has been cited as an example of a failed prophecy. The historical Zerubbabel apparently never gained the political prominence hinted at here. But these verses can be understood alternatively within an eschatological time frame, whether as an indication of Zerubbabel's future position in the New Jerusalem or as his role in the Davidic line of the coming Messiah. A recasting of Fig. 1 in terms of the time frames of the events is given in Fig. 2.

Figure 2: Time Frame of Haggai's Oracles

Cycle I

Section A: Present (before temple building began) (Aug. 520 BC)

Section B1: Immediate Past

Section B2: Near Future

Section C: Eschatological Future

Cycle II

Section A': Present (after temple building began) (Dec. 520 BC)

Section B'1: Immediate Past

Section B'2: Near Future

Section C': Eschatological Future

Note that within each prophetic cycle, there is a forward progression chronologically. In addition, Cycle II advances the action slightly over Cycle I in regards to time (a common device utilized in apocalyptic literature such as the books of Daniel and Revelation). And since the ornate temple described in Section C would seem to apply at the earliest to Herod's Temple, that means that the prophecy concerning Zerubbabel will take place no sooner than its construction. Thus, an eschatological understanding of the final oracle in Haggai is seen to be more than a fallback position, but is probably the intended interpretation.