GENESIS: INTRODUCTION TO LITERARY STRUCTURE

Below is a highly condensed version of my complete analysis of this book. For that version, you may contact me at elmerphd21@hotmail.com and I will send it to you as an email attachment.

There is a continuing debate over the number, dating and telltale characteristics of the original sources behind this book. This has to a great extent derailed attempts to look for an overarching organization by lowering expectations that any such a coherent organization exists. This is not the place to discuss the relative merits of the various source theories applied to the book, but Robert Alter’s words in the preface to his translation bear repeating:

“One need not claim that Genesis is a unitary artwork, like, say, a novel by Henry James, in order to grant it integrity as a book.”

Thus, whether one believes that a sole human author penned Genesis, a committee, or a series of authors and editors over an extended time period, it is still proper to talk of the book’s structure.

In most scholars' minds, the overall pattern to Genesis is determined by the the presence of one key word, toledot, marking the start of each section. This Hebrew word is better known by its Greek equivalent, geneseos, from which derives the title of the book. Toledot is variously translated as genealogy, descendants, generation, story, origin, source, line, history, or account. This approach results in the following structure in which narratives and genealogies alternate, following the first section, which functions as a sort of prologue to the whole book.

Figure 1: Divisions in the Book of Genesis

I. Creation (1:1-2:3)

II. Eden and Beyond (2:4-4:26)

III. Genealogy (Salvation) (5:1-6:8)

IV. Destruction (6:9-9:28)

V. Genealogy (Salvation) (10:1-31)

VI. Babel and Beyond (10:32-11:9)

VII. Genealogy (Salvation) (11:10-26)

VIII. Narrative–Abraham (11:27-25:11)

IX. Genealogy (Divergent) (25:12-18)

X. Narrative–Isaac/Jacob (25:19-35:29)

XI. Genealogy (Divergent) (36:1-43)

                        XII. Narrative–Joseph (37:1-50:29)

Most commentators also recognize an overall two-fold structure with the first eleven chapters relating to “Primeval History” while the rest of Genesis deals with the Patriarchs. Dahlberg sees an inclusio between Gen. 1-11 and the Joseph Cycle ending the book with the latter “intended as the climatic outworking of the problems of humanity posed in the first eleven chapters...” Several specific verbal and thematic examples tying together Gen. 1-4 with chs. 49-50 could be cited to confirm this proposal.

Interspersed between the narrative passages in these verses are three major genealogy sections. These are arranged as “vertical” genealogies pursuing one line of descendants, and they describe God's chosen lines. In contrast, the “horizontal” genealogies of the second half of Genesis pursue the divergent or tangential lines of descent.

Primeval History

Since there is a general consensus that Gen. 1-11 should be considered as a unity of sorts, the next point to address is the nature of that unity. In doing so, however, it is possible to see an alternative to the conventional wisdom described above. Thus, if one still considers toledot to be a key structural marker in Genesis but not necessarily to begin each new section, the following overall scheme for the Primeval History results.

Figure 2: Structure of Primeval History

A. Sin and Punishment: Out of Eden (3:1-4:16)

        B. Genealogy: Cain (4:17-24)

                C. Transition (4:25-26)

        B'. Genealogy: Seth (5:1-31)

                C'. Transition (6:1-4)

A'. Sin and Punishment: The Flood (6:5-9:29)

        B''. Genealogy: Noah (10:1-32)

                C''. Transition (11:1-9)

        B'''. Genealogy: Shem (11:10-26)

According to this arrangement, toledot sometimes functions as an opening section marker and sometimes to indicate a transition passage. Each of the units within Figure 2 possesses its own internal symmetry.

Another way of viewing the Primeval History is by concentrating on just two themes: creation and blessing (also the title of an excellent study of Genesis by Allen Ross). In the Prologue, God creates the heavens and earth; in Section II, His creation is particularized to the planting of a garden for man; in Section IV, it is man (Noah) who creates (an ark), but only at God's direction; and finally in the Babel narrative, man creates a tower in an attempt to rival God. The progressive degeneration of mankind is thus seen by considering this one theme. The concept of blessing also rapidly degenerates as the story unfolds and is transformed into a curse because of mankind's actions. Even the blessing of God given just after the flood (which parallels the one in Gen. 1-2) is subtly changed in that eating of animals is now mentioned and subduing the land is not.

Others plot the overall literary structure of Gen. 1-11 according to the following repetitive pattern:

A. Creation, B. Dispersion, C. Salvation --- A'. Destruction, B'.Dispersion, C'. Salvation

In each case, dispersion of mankind follows disobedience to God, but a promise of ultimate salvation is given. It has been noted that each of the first two “salvation genealogies” has ten generations and ends with three sons, one of whom sins and one who becomes the next in the chosen line. As a possible intended inclusio for the primeval narratives is the appearance of the important phrase “upon the face of all the earth” at 1:29 and three times in ch. 11. God's blessing of all mankind at their first appearance on the scene in 1:28 may also be paralleled by his blessing on Abraham at the start of the Patriarchal stories at 12:1-3.  Another sign of literary purposefulness within the Primeval History is the mention of man being created in the image/likeness of God at the end of Section I, the start of Section III and the end of Section IV (see Figure 1).

One is perhaps on much firmer ground in looking for orderly literary structures within the small narrative units in the first eleven chapters. The creation account is a prime example of a narrative ordered by the use of a parallel architecture rather than in a chronological manner:

                                                                Initial Conditions: Chaos (1:1-2)

        Light Created; light and darkness separated (1:3-5)

                Dome of the sky created; waters above and below separated (1:6-8)

                        Land and seas created when they are separated from one another (1:9-10)

                                Plants are brought forth from the land (1:11-13)            

        Lights in the sky separate night and day (1:14-19)

                Birds inhabit the sky, and the water brings forth living creatures (1:20-23)

                        Land brings forth living creatures, including man (1:24-28)

                                Plants are designated as food for creatures and man (1:29-31)

                                                                Final Conditions: Rest (2:1-3)

The above scenario runs slightly counter to most outlines, which stress the creation of mankind on the sixth day as being the epitome of God's work. But it has the advantage of emphasizing God's provision of food by the appearance of plant life, upon which all animal life (including our own) is ultimately dependent. The other place in Gen. 1 where something is specifically said to be created for man's benefit is at the start of the second cycle at v. 14 concerning the positioning of the heavenly bodies to aid in discerning the times and seasons. Symmetrical literary patterns for other select texts within the Primeval History have been proposed.

Patriarchal History

Concerning the Patriarchal History, Hamilton sees a “clear geographical design” in which sections VIII-XI of Figure 1 (taking place in Palestine) are bracketed by those occurring in Babylon and Egypt, the two major powers of the ancient near Eastern world with which the Jewish people would interact. (8) The five sections that comprise chs. 12-50 alternate between narratives and genealogies in a regular pattern. There is a definite parallelism between the genealogies of the “unchosen” older sons Ishmael and Esau in the respective sections IX and XI since, among other things, both have exactly twelve sons.

There are a number of parallels between Cycles VIII and X, especially the predominant theme of sibling rivalry. Other common emphases include: the promise that God's people will “be a blessing to all the nations” (12:3; 22:18; 28:14), a life of hostility predicted (16:12; 27:40), and conclusions in which feuding sons are united in burying their father (25:9; 35:29).

Similar parallels have been noted between Sections VIII and XII. For one, there is a deliberate contrast at the ends of these units regarding the age of the patriarchs involved. Abraham lived to a “good old age” while Jacob complained, “my years have been few and difficult.” (9) Altars are erected in 12:7; 26:24-25; 28:12-19 and 35:1-15. Divine messages are relayed by means of angels in 16:7-13; 18:1-33; 22:11-18 and 32:24-30, and through dreams in 20:3-7 and 28:12-17. Also, the births of twins in chs. 25 and 38, with their reversed birth orders, are introduced using almost identical language in 25:24 and 38:27, with the pointed appearance of the color red in both accounts.

Abraham Cycle

Anyone who has read the story of Abraham will be struck with the apparent duplication of certain events. For example, twice he attempts to deceive a monarch by misstating his relationship with Sarah (12:10-20; 20:1-18); twice he is called on to rescue Lot (14:1-16; 18:16-19:29); twice he refuses a gift (14:17-24; 23:1-15); and there are two misguided attempts to continue a line (16:1-4; 19:30-38). If these duplications are plotted, they form a roughly symmetrical structure. The approximate center of this cycle (17:17-18:10) concerns the next covenant bearer, Isaac – the subject of the following narrative cycle.  Whatever one's view of the historicity of the doublets, they certainly appear to be purposeful and not just the product of an incredibly obtuse editor. This view will be strengthened by considering the next two patriarchal cycles.

Isaac/Jacob Cycle

My own analysis of this section closely follows that of Fishbane. This time the chiastic structure is unmistakable. In the paired units working from the outer sections inward, we see that births are balanced by deaths; there are disagreeable encounters with Gentiles; Jacob and Esau work through their uneasy relationship with one another; Jacob has supernatural encounters with God when he leaves and enters the borders of the promised land; and Jacob and Laban take turns scheming against one another. Within each of the major lettered sections, there are also specific events and phrases that are echoed within the parallel sections although they do not appear in the same order in each paired literary unit. At the center of this structure is the birth of Joseph, preparing the reader for the last major narrative section.

Joseph Cycle

Figure 3: Joseph

A. Jacob’s family dwells in Canaan

B. Joseph’s favored status (special garment) (37:2b-3)

    C. Separation from brothers (37:4-36)

D. Judah’s first test (ch. 38)

E. Joseph as a slave (39:1-20)

E'. Joseph as a prisoner (39:21-41:36)

         B'. Joseph’s favored status (special garment) (41:37-44)

  C'. Reunion with brothers (41:45-42:38)

D'. Judah’s second test (43:1-44:34)

A'. Jacob's family dwells in Egypt; Promise of return to Canaan (45:1-50:26)

Two general observation must be made regarding this justly famous series of stories before proceeding. The first is the remarkable fact, mentioned earlier, that so much verbiage should be spent on Joseph, who was, in Hamilton’s words, “not a patriarch and not the son through whom the covenantal promises were perpetuated.” One possible explanation for this seemingly misplaced emphasis will be given below.

Expanding on some of the concepts in Seybold's excellent treatment and reducing them to outline form, one can indeed come up with a structure of absolute symmetry which even extends to the sub-sections and smaller units, not shown in Figure 3. In addition, that it completely incorporates the Tamar story of Gen. 38. The chiastically paired sections E and E' center around two similar trials of character to which Joseph is subjected. A comparison of Joseph's actions in both “B” sections shows that he has successfully matured through his experiences. According to the generally accepted rules regarding chiasms, the stress in even-membered chiastic organizations such as this one is on the important outer sections, labeled A and A'. These do not center on Joseph at all, but begin with the patriarchs in the land of Canaan and end with a promise of their return, which will be fulfilled in the rest of the Pentateuch. This observation confirms to some extent Wenham's insistence that the title of this cycle given in Gen. 37:2 (“This is the story of the family of Jacob”) should be taken seriously.

Also embedded in the structure shown in Fig. 3 are two parallel series of three units each that start with B and B' and build to a climax with D and D', respectively. Each series begins with Joseph's status as second only to the figure of power (Jacob and pharaoh, respectively), proceeds to the stories of Joseph's estrangement and then reunion with his brothers, and lastly describes the testing of Judah much as Joseph was tested in the “E” sections. This analysis goes beyond those proposed by most others in explaining the function of the Tamar story in ch. 38, as spelled out in the title, “Judah's First Test.” The major drama in this story centers around the failure of Judah to provide his widowed daughter-in-law with a husband under the levirate marriage custom. He is convicted of his behavior at the end of the story and says of Tamar, “She is more righteous than I.”

The second major test which Judah is given in the structurally parallel Section D' hinges on his relationship with his brothers. There are a number of verbal and thematic similarities between these two sections. In Gen. 43-49, Joseph subjects the ten siblings who had sold him into slavery to severe testing to see if they have changed their character over the years. Judah, as the focus of this testing, rises to the challenge by volunteering to be a slave to Joseph in order to save Benjamin's life.

Judah, rather than Joseph, is actually the “hero” of these chapters as well as of ch. 38. One can argue therefore that the structure of the “Joseph” Cycle is actually designed to put Judah on center stage, not Joseph. The basic thrust of this view is supported by the observation that Joseph is always a bridesmaid but never a bride. He is, respectively, second in power to his father Jacob, Potiphar, the jailer, pharaoh, and finally to his brother Judah. For it is not the seed of Joseph, but the Lion of Judah, who will be a future blessing for the nation of Israel and the world.

Overall Structure

It is tempting to view Genesis as two separate books: Primeval and Patriarchal History. However, there are unifying trends present also. As two such examples, Wenham has demonstrated several verbal parallels between chs. 3 and 16 as two “fall”stories and between chs. 6-9 and 18-19 as two cases of a remnant being saved from destruction. 

Also important to review is the trend exhibited in the structures of the patriarchal stories. In the Abraham Cycle, the sections appear to be arranged in a roughly symmetrical order. With the Isaac/Jacob Cycle, this develops into a perfect chiasm as regards the sections and displays repetition of themes and events in the sub-sections as well, but in random order. Finally, in the Joseph Cycle that concludes Genesis, a sophisticated and wholly symmetrical combination of chiasm and repetition characterizes the sections, the sub-sections, and in some cases the even smaller literary units.

Thus, the analysis above demonstrates that the ever perfecting literary order to the Book of Genesis mirrors the major themes of the book: creation and blessing. Just as the chaos of Gen. 1:2 was conquered by God (to use the imagery in the Book of Job) and transformed into an ordered and populated universe, so the relative lack of literary patterning in the first chapters becomes transformed into a highly ordered composition by the end of the book. Similarly, as God's redemptive plan for mankind is slowly unveiled with the choosing of a particular people, family and, finally, individual to carry on the blessing, so the literary plan of the book gradually crystallizes.